Bloss's Ancient History. 

Illustrated by colored Maps, and a Chronological Chart. For the use 
of Schools and Families. Revised and improved by John J. Anderson, 
A. M., Author of a Series of School Histories. 1 vol. 12mo. 450 pages. 

This work is a condensed history of the world as known to the Ancients 
of Europe and Asia. The narrative begins with the Creation, and, con- 
tinuing through the histories of Assyria, Egypt, and Rome, ends with the 
downfall of the Roman Empire. The style is exceedingly graceful and 
happy, combined with great brevity and clearness of statement. The 
study of Ancient History, which is usually so dry and uninteresting to the 
pupil, is, by the use of this work, made attractive and agreeable. The 
work contains large colored Maps and a Chronological Chart, and in 
addition to questions at the bottom of the pages, has a different set of 
questions at the end of the Sections, for topical review. It has also a full 
pronouncing index. 



From Miss Mary E. Thalheimer, Teacher of History in the Packer Collegiate 

Institute. 
Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn, March 8th, 1869. 

11 Bloss's Ancient History, as edited by Mr. Anderson, is used now for the second year 
in three Departments of the Packer Institute. ***** jr or m y owri part, I have 
only to express a very high appreciation of the work, for the clear and attractive style of 
the narrative, and the great interest it has awakened in my classes. I know of no other 
School History which is at once so condensed and so entertaining, which, including so 
many nations and such various periods of time, manages to maintain so much of the 
charm of an easy flowing narrative with the accuracy of a general outline." 

From Dr. T. S. Pinneo, Author of a series of English Grammars, Guide to Composi- 
tion, &c, &c. 

"I have used Bloss's Ancient History in my classes with decided success. In style, 

in selection and arrangement of matter, in the union of comprehensiveness with brevity, 

and in its power of securing attention and interest, I know of no work that surpasses 

it. I can cordially recommend it as a model class-book." 

From Prof. A. Markham, Principal Milwaukie Academy, Milwaukie, Wis. 
" I have examined Bloss's Ancient History with very great, pleasure and satisfaction. 
The Maps and Chronological Chart are excellent, and contribute largely to the value and 
completeness of the work. The interesting style in which the book is written cannot 
fail to render it an attractive text-book for the student. It is just such a text-book as 
we have long needed." 

From Hon. A. E. Rankin, Secretary of the Vermont Board of Education. 
" Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History comprises in scarcely more than 400 pages an in- 
telligible outline of Ancient History, from the Creation of man to the Fall of the Eoman 
Empire. It is the best text-book in this department that has come under my notice. 
The style is clear, concise, and attractive. The work exhibits the same care in systematic 
arrangement and judicious collocation of related facts, which have commended his series 
of United States Histories to the intelligent teacher. It is easy to see that Mr. Ander- 
son has spent many years as a practical teacher." 



Published by CLARK & MAYNAMD, 

5 Barclay Street, New York. 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 1. 




V' Z A 



Manual 



OF 



General History: 

Being an Outline History op the World 

from the Creation to the 

Present Time. 

FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS. 



FOR THE USE OP 



ACADEMIES, HIGH-SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES. 



BY 



JOHN" J- AWDEESOW, A.M., 

LATE PRINCIPAL OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL NO. 31, NEW YORK CITY ; AUTHOR OP 

AN INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL-HISTORY, A COMMON-SCHOOL HISTORY, 

A GRAMMAR SCHOOL HISTORY, AND A PICTORIAL SCHOOL 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



/ 

NEW YORK : 
CLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS, 

5 BARCLAY STREET. 
1870. 




SCHOOL HISTORIES 



BY 



JOHN J. ANDERSON, A. M., 

Late Principal of Grammar School No. 31, New York Citt. 



1. Introductory School History of the United 

States. Illustrated with maps. 194 pp. 16mo. 

This work, though arranged on the catechetical plan, may he read independ- 
ently of the questions as a continuous narrative, the text having been fully writ- 
ten before the questions were prepared. It is designed for classes of ad- 
vanced AS WELL AS LOWER GRADES, IN WHICH ONLY AN OUTLINE OF UNITED 

States History is taught. 

2. Common School Hi§tory of the United States, 

Illustrated with maps. 350 pp. 16mo. 

This work is more catechetical than the preceding, since the answers are more 
independent of each other. It is designed for large graded schools. 

3. Grammar School History of the United States. 

With one series of maps showing the places referred to in the work, and another 
showing the progress of the country, with its territorial extent at different pe- 
riods in its History. 252 pp. 16mo. 

The narrative plan has been adopted in this hook, with one set of questions 
at the bottom of the pages, and another for topical review at the end of the 
sections. This work will meet all the wants of graded schools and 

ACADEMIES. 

4. Pictorial School History of the United States. 

Fully illustrated with maps, portraits, vignettes, &c 402 pp. 12mo. 

This work is also on the narrative plan, but more circumstantial in its state- 
ments than any of the preceding. It is designed for High Schools and 
Academies. 

*** All of the above-named works contain the Declaration of Independence 
and the Constitution of the United States, with questions and explanations : 
and in the Grammar School History will also be found Washington's Farewell 
Address. 

5. A Manual of General History. Copiously illus- 
trated with maps, and accompanied with questions, Chronological Tables, Tables 
of Contemporaneous History, etc. etc. 420 pp. 12mo. 

This work has been prepared with great care on the narrative plan. 
Its statements are brief and clear. Designed for advanced classes. 

6. Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History. Illustrated 

with colored maps and a chart. 445 pp. 12mo. Designed for High Schools 
and Academies. 

One of the leading atms in all of Anderson's Histories is to con- 
nect the geography with the chronology. 

Clark & Maynard, published, 

5 BARCLAY ST., New York. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18G9. 
By JOHN J. ANDERSON, 

In tho Clcrk'8 Office of the District Court of the United States for the 

Southern District of New York. 



TO TEAOHEES. 



This work is designed to supply what the author be- 
lieves to be a great want among school text-books at 
the present time — namely, a convenient manual of gen- 
eral history, with the necessary geographical and chro- 
nological accompaniments. The plan pursued corres- 
ponds with that of the author's popular school his- 
tories of the United States, the situation of the differ- 
ent places mentioned in the text being shown on maps, 
specially prepared for this work. These maps, as far 
as it w r as found possible in so elementary a work, also 
present the progressive changes in the various polit- 
ical divisions of which the history successively treats. 
In connection with them is given a system of map- 
questions, by which the pupil's attention is called to 
the exact location of places just previous to their oc- 
currence in the History. 

The value of this plan has never been disputed by 
any teacher or student by whom it has been employed, 
experience clearly showing, that by associating events 
with places, both are more permanently impressed on 
the mind. 

The questions at the bottom of the pages are chiefly 
designed to draw attention to single facts, or to very 
brief statements; those at the end of the sections, 
called Review Questions, associate facts belonging to 
the same individual, place, or train of events, and are 
thus of a topical character. This system of exercises 



TO TEACHERS. 



affords all that is needed to give the pupil that power 
and readiness of grouping, describing, and relating, in 
which the chief value of historical study consists. 

The arrangement of matter followed is that by 
countries, rather than by periods, the author being of 
opinion, that the latter tends to confuse very much the 
mind of a student who has not already acquired a 
pretty good outline of the history of each country de- 
scribed. By dividing the whole subject into the 
periods of Ancient, Mediceval, and Modern history, the 
awkward and unsatisfactory method has been avoided 
of keeping the pupil's attention, while he is studying 
the history of one country, entirely away from the con- 
temporaneous history of other nations. This is still 
further obviated by the several tables of contemporane- 
ous events interspersed through the work. Events 
that are connected with the history of several countries 
are referred to briefly in each, so that they may be im- 
pressed upon the mind more clearly, by being viewed 
from each as a stand-point. 

The indicated pronunciation of proper names, which 
in the study of general history (particularly of ancient 
history) are so apt to be mispronounced, will be found 
a source of great convenience to both teacher and 
pupil, to whom it is not always possible to consult 
such vocabularies as contain these words, and who, 
therefore, generally acquire, by habit, incorrect methods 
of pronunciation, very difficult afterward to be aban- 
doned. The authorities employed are Webster's and 
Worcester s Dictionaries, and Lippincotfs Pronouncing 
Gazetteer. 

Being convinced of the great importance of chro- 
nology, the author has inserted dates very freely, but 
generally so as to form no essential part of the narra- 



TO TEACHEKS. 



fcive, — in order that, while the pupil need not be ex- 
pected to make these dates a matter of special study, 
he may obtain, by keeping them in view, a definite idea 
of the events in their order of occurrence, and of the 
intervals of time by which they are separated. — 
Teachers need not be admonished against the folly of 
requiring dates to be memorized apart from the nar- 
rative to which they relate. 

The maps should be used freely, being consulted 
constantly, and occasionally drawn on the blackboard, 
either by the teacher, or one of the pupils. No recita- 
tion should be permitted without a reference to them. 
In this way, the conceptions of the pupils will be made 
clear and accurate, the eyes as well as the ears being 
called into requisition. 

Trusting that this work will receive the generous 
patronage and consideration awarded to his other 
historical publications, the author, with these few 
remarks and suggestions, commits it to the impartial 
examination of his colaborers in the cause of educa- 
tion. 



MAPS. 



MAPS. 



»-♦-« 

PAGB 

1. The Persian Empire under Darius (Progressive Map, No. 1), 

Frontispiece. 

2. Ancient Monarchies 12 

3. Ancient Greece (Progressive Map, No. 2) facing 33 

4. Asia Minor 41 

5. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand 47 

6. The Marches of Alexander the Great 52 

7. Ancient Italy (Progressive Map, No. 3) facing 67 

8. Vicinity of Rome 68 

9. The Roman Empire under Augustus (Progressive Map, 

No. 4) facing 104 

10. The Barbaric Monarchies at the commencement of the reign 

of Justinian (Progressive Map, No. 5) facing 131 

11. The Empire of Charlemagne and the Contemporary Mon- 

archies (Progressive Map, No. 6) facing 142 

12. Great Britain and Ireland 158 

13. France, and the neighboring Countries 188 

14. Spain and Portugal 226 

15. The Places referred to in the Modern History of Europe 

(Progressive Map, No. 7) facing 232 b 

16. Discoveries and Explorations in North America 358 

17. South America (Progressive Map, No. 8) facing 366 

18. Part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania 372 

19. The United States at the close of the Revolution (Progressive 

Map, No. 9) facing 374 / 

20. The Niagara Frontier 377 

21. Taylor's Campaign , 380 

22. Scott's Campaign 381 

23. Part of Maryland and Virginia 384 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 9 

PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

SECTION I.— The Most Ancient Nations 11 

Babylonia or Chaldea (12) ; Assyria (14) ; Media (16) ; Lydia 
(17) ; Ancient Egypt (19) ; Ethiopia (24) ; Syria and Pales- 
tine (25) ; Chronological Recapitulation (28). 

SECTION II. — Persia, Greece, and Macedonia 31 

Persia (31) ; Greece (33) ; Macedonian Empire (49) ; Chrono- 
logical Recapitulation (64). 

SECTION III.— Rome 67 

Samnite War (75) ; Punic Wars (77) ; Pergamus (84) ; The 
Gracchi (86) ; War against Jugurtha (88) ; Social War (89) ; 
Mithridatic War (89) ; Civil War of Marius and Sylla (90) ; 
Servile War (91) ; Jewish history (92) ; Conspiracy of Cati- 
line (93) ; First Triumvirate (93) ; Second Civil War (95) ; 
Second Triumvirate (99) ; Chronological Recapitulation (100) ; 
Table of Contemporaneous Events (102). 

SECTION IV.— The Roman Empire 104 

Augustus (104); Tiberius (105); Caligula (106); Claudius 
(106) ; Nero (107) ; Galba (108) ; Otho (108) ; Vitellius (108) ; 
Vespasian (109); Titus (109); Domitian (110); The Five ; 
Good Emperors (111); Commodus (113); Pertinax (114); 
Septimius Severus (114) ; Caracalla (115) ; Macrinusr (115) ; 
Heliogabalus (116); Alexander Severus (116); Maximin 
(116) ; Gordian (117) ; Decius (117) ; Valerian (117) ; Gallie- 
nus (118); Claudius (119); Aurelian (119); Tacitus (120); 
Diocletian (120) ; Constantine (121) ; Julian the Apostate 
(122) ; Jovian (123) ; Theodosius the Great (123) ; Honorius 
(124) ; Valentinian III. (125) ; Maximus (125) ; Romulus Au- 
gustulus (127) ; Chronological Recapitulation (127). 



CONTENTS. 



PAET II. MEDLEVAL HISTOEY. 

SECTION I.— The Eastern Empire 131 

SECTION IL— The Dark Ages 142 

The Franks (142) ; The Normans (146) ; The Saxons in Brit- 
ain (147) ; The Saracens -(149) ; The Feudal System (153) ; 
Chronological Recapitulation (154). 

SECTION III.— England in the Middle Ages 157 

Norman Kings (160) ; The Plantagenets (163) ; Chronolpgi- 
cal Recapitulation (184). 

SECTION IY. — France during the Middle Ages 187 

Branch of Yalois (196) ; Chronological Recapitulation (202). 

SECTION V.— The Crusades 205 

First Crusade (206) ; Second Crusade (207) ; Third Crusade 
(208) ; Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh Crusades (209) ; Influence 
of the Crusades (210) ; Chronological Recapitulation (211). 

SECTION VI. — Central and Southern Europe during 

the Middle Ages 213 

Germany (213); The Hanseatic League (216); Switzerland 
(219); Italy (220); Spain (225); Portugal (227); Chronologi- 
cal Recapitulation (228) ; Table of Contemporaneous Events 
(230). 

PART III. MODERN HISTOEY. 

SECTION I.— England ... 232 

The Tudors (232); The Stuart Family (245) ; The Common- 
wealth (254) ; House of Brunswick (267) ; Chronological Re- 
capitulation (281). 

SECTION II.— France 285 

House of Bourbon (295) ; Chronological Recapitulation (329). 

SECTION III.— European States 325 

4 Germany (325) ; Austria (330) ; Prussia (331) ; Poland (333); 
Holland and Belgium (335); Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
mark (337) ; Russia (340) ; Switzerland (343) ; Italy (344) ; 
- Spain (346) ; Portugal (348) ; Turkey (349) ; Greece (352) ; 
Chronological Recapitulation (353); Table of Contempo- 
raneous Events (357). 

SECTION IV.— American History 359 

Discoveries and Settlements (359); United States (369); 
Mexico (391); Central America (392); West Indies (393); 
Chronological Recapitulation (396). 



INTRODUCTION. 



HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY — THEIR DIVISIONS, SOURCES, ETC. 

1. History is a narration of the events which have hap- 
pened among mankind, including an account of the rise 
and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which 
have affected the political and social condition of the 
human race. 

2. Chronology is a department of history which treats 
of the exact time, or date, of each event, with reference to 
some fixed time, called* an era or epoch. The epoch usually 
employed in our times among Christian nations for reck- 
oning dates, is the birth of Christ, called the Christian 
Era.* All dates preceding this are marked B. c, that is, 
Before Christ; and all subsequent to it are marked A. D., 
that is, Anno Domini, which means In the year of our 
Lord; that is, After the Urth of Christ. 

3. Previous to the fifth century b. C, there are but few 
dates that can be fixed with tolerable certainty; that is to 
say, no uninterrupted series of dates can be accurately and 
positively assigned to events which are known to have 
occurred. In the earliest ages all dates are uncertain, 
authorities differing very much with regard to them, from 

* This era is, however, commonly placed four years after the time at which the birth of Christ 
is supposed to have taken place. 



Introduction.— 1. What is history ? 

2. What is chronology ? What is an era or epoch ? What epoch is usually em- 
ployed ? What does B. C. mean ? A. D. ? 

3. When do dates hecome reliable? 

1* 



10 IKTBODUCTION. 



the absence of reliable information respecting these very 
remote periods. 

4. History is best divided into Ancient, Mediaeval, and 
Modern. Ancient history is considered to end 476 A. d., 
the date of the destrnction of the western division of the 
Eoman Empire. Mediaeval history, or the history of the 
Middle Ages, extends from 476 A. D. to about the time 
of the fall of the eastern division of the Eoman Empire, in 
1453. All subsequent history belongs to the third division. 
This mode of dividing the subject is, however, entirely 
arbitrary. 

5. The most important facts to be learned in history are 
those that refer to the progress of mankind in civilization, 
— in the arts, sciences, literature, political freedom, social 
culture, and religious truth. "Whatever events have no 
immediate bearing upon these, though often affording mat- 
ter for curious reflection and interesting research, are of 
secondary importance. 

6. The chief sources of ancient history are the Sacred 
Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, which are the 
compositions of inspired writers, the works of ancient 
writers not divinely inspired, and ancient monuments, 
medals, coins, inscriptions, etc. 



4. How is history divided ? At what date does ancient history end ? M idiaeval 
history ? What other division is there ? 

5. What are the most important facts of history ? 

6. What are the chief sources of ancient history ? 



PAET I. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 



section i. 

The most Ancient Nations. 

Extending from the Earliest Ages to the Foundation of the Persian 
Empire by Gyrus the Great. 

1. The exact date of the Creation and Fall of Man can- 
not be fixed with any degree of certainty, neither can the 
interval of time between the Creation and the Deluge be 
ascertained. The estimates of different chronologists as to 
these facts vary so widely that they seem worthy of no 
credence whatever. The difficulty of assigning the exact 
time of those events does not, however, at all diminish the 
evidence of their actual occurrence. 

2. After the dispersion of mankind at Ba/bel, it is sup- 
posed that the descendants of Shem, the eldest of Noah's 
sons, went to the east and populated Asia ; those of Ham, 
with few exceptions, passed into Africa; and those of 
Ja'phet journeyed to the west and occupied different parts 
of Europe. The oldest monarchies, of which history gives 
us any account, are those of Babylo'nta and Assy'ria in 
Asia, and those of Egypt and Ethio'pia in Africa. 

Map Qtjestions. — (See Map, page 1?.) What rivers unite and flow into the Persian 
Gulf? What region situated between them? Where was Babylonia? Assyria? 
Chaldea? Persia or Elam ? Media? What city in Babylonia? InChaldea? In As- 
syria? In Media? Where was Susa? What river tributary to the Euxine or 
Black Sea? What monarchy in Asia Minor ? Its capital? What regions east of 
the Mediterranean Sea ? Principal cities ? What two great cities' on the Nile 
River ? What port at its eastern mouth ? What port at the head of the Red Sea ? 
What celebrated mountain near to it ? What region east of the Enxine Sea ? 

Section I. — 1. Can the exact date of the creation and fall of man be fixed? 

2. What events immediately followed the dispersion of mankind ? Whither did 
the sons of Noah migrate ? Which are the oldest monarchies ? 



12 



THE MOST AKCIEK'T NATIONS. IB. C. 2200. 




Babylonia or Ohaldea. 

3. The city of Bab'ylon was founded by Nimrod, the 
son of Cush, and grandson of Ham. It was situated on 
the river Euphrates, and became the capital of Babylo'nia 
or Chalde'a, — a region lying along that river, and originally 
called SJri'nar. 

4. Nimrod is described in the Scriptures as a "mighty 
hunter," and is supposed to be the same as the Be'lus of 
whom the historians speak in connection with the early 
history of this country, or the Bel, afterward worshipped 
as a god by the people. The constellation Ori'on is thought 
to represent this celebrated hero. 



3. By whom was Babylon founded ? How situated ? Of what was it the capital ? 

4. Who was Mmrod ? 



B. C. 747.] THE MOST ANCIENT KATIOHS. 13 

5. Babylon is supposed to have been built about twenty- 
two centuries b. c. It* was in its early history a city of 
minor importance, TJr and others being capital cities while 
it remained a mere village. The Ohaldees (kal-deez') seem 
to have occupied at first the shores of the Persian Gulf, 
and to have afterward spread northward, until about 1700 
B. c, when the seat of government was fixed at Babylon. 

6. The minute history of this monarchy during about a 
thousand years from this date cannot be given; neither 
can its relations to the neighboring kingdoms of Assy'ria 
and E'lam, during this period, be positively defined. The 
explorations made in recent years among the ruins found 
in this whole region (called Mesopotamia) have thrown 
much light upon many questions pertaining to its his'tory ; 
but an exact statement of the particular results reached 
would be out of place in this elementary work. 

7. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known 
to us from the year 747 B. c. The " Canon of Ptolemy," 
an astronomical work of the great geographer, gives us 
from this date the succession of monarchs to 330 b. c, when 
Babylon became a part of the dominions of Alexander the 
Great. The inscriptions discovered among the ruins con- 
firm the truth of this work. 

8. The date of the commencement of the reign of Nabo- 
nas'sar is precisely fixed by the record of certain astronom- 
ical phenomena, made by Ptolemy. This date, called the 
Era of Nabonassar, is very famous in history. It is the 
year 747 b. c. (more particularly, Wednesday, February 26th 
of that year). 

9. About 680 B. c. Babylon became subject to Assyria, 
but subsequently regained its independence; and -under 

5. When was Babylon built ? What is said of the Chaldees ? 

6. To what extent is the early history of Babylonia known ? What region was 
called Mesopotamia ? Recent discoveries therein ? 

7. When does the exact history of the Babylonian kings begin? What does 
the " Canon of Ptolemy" make known to us ? How confirmed ? 

8. What is the Era of Nabonassar ? How is it fixed ? 

9. When was Babylon subject to Assyria? Give the history of Nebuchad- 
nezzar ? 



14 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 588. 

the celebrated monarch Nebuchadnez'zar, acquired yery 
great power. This king defeated the king of Egypt, sub- 
dued Jehoi'ahim, king of Judah, and in consequence of 
repeated revolts, destroyed Jerusalem, and put an end to 
the kingdom of Judah under Zedeki'ah, carrying its in- 
habitants captiyes to Babylon (588 b. c.) He afterward 
turned his attention to the embellishment of his capital, 
and erected in Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent 
and magnificence. 

10. After his death the Babylonian empire declined; and 
In 538 B. c, during the reign of Belshaz'zar,* as recorded 
in the Scriptures, the city was taken by Cyrus, king of the 
Persians ; and Babylonia thus became a Persian province. 

Assyria. 

11. Of the three countries that occupied the plain of 
Mesopotamia, Assyria was the most modern. It was a very 
fertile and populous region, and at the height of its pros- 
perity was a powerful empire. That it had advanced greatly 
in civilization and the arts, is proved by the vast ruins 
which remain, and which in recent years have been dili- 
gently explored. 

12. The inscriptions discovered among these ruins have 
shown that very much of the history, previously received 
upon the credit of the Greek historians, is quite erroneous. 
The statements, however, of the Babylonian writer Bero'- 
sus, who lived about 268 b. c, and whose account coincides 
very nearly with the Scriptures, are proved to be correct. 

13. Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria, built on the 
Tigris Eiver, and once among the most splendid cities of 
the world, was, according to the Scriptures, built by Ash'- 

* More probably Wabona/dius and his son Belshaz'zar. 



10. "Wi \t followed the death of Nebuchadnezzar? When and by whom was 
Babylon taken ? 

11. What was the situation of Assyria? How is it described ? Evidences of 
its civilization ? 

12. What have the inscriptions shown ? What is said of Berosus ? 

1 3. Nineveh— its situation and origin ? When did it rise to greatness ? 



B. C. 721.] THE MOST ANCIEKT KATIOKS. 15 



ur, after the foundation of Babylon {Genesis, x. 11). That 
it rose to greatness after Babylon is stated by Berosus and 
proved by the inscriptions. 

14. Little is known of Assyria previous to 770 b. a, when 
Pul invaded Palestine, but was bought off by Men'aliem, 
king of Israel (2 Kings, xv. 19, 20). In 738 b. c, Tig' lath 
Pile'ser, another king of Assyria, conquered Syria, and in- 
vading Palestine, carried away captive many of the Jews. 

15. His successor Shal-man-e'ser also invaded Palestine, 
and laid siege to Sama'ria, the capital of the kingdom of 
Israel, which after a time surrendered (721 B. a), but prob- 
ably to Sar'gon, the successor of Shalmaneser ; since such 
seems to be the testimony of the monuments (2 Kings, 
xviii. 9, 10). 

16. Sen-nach'e-rib, the son and successor of Sargon, ob- 
tained possession of Babylon, and made two expeditions 
against Judea, in the first of which he carried away 
200,000 of the Jews captive ; but in the second he failed 
entirely, his army having been destroyed by a pestilence, 
miraculously sent by God to preserve the Jews. This was 
during the reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-hi' all. Sen- 
nacherib was a short time afterward slain by his sons. 

17. The last great king of Assyria was E' sar-Jiad' don, 
son of Sennacherib, who reigned also over Babylon, at 
which he sometimes held his court; bricks bearing his 
name having been recently found among the ruins of that 
city. His conquests extended over a large part of "Western 
Asia, and he claimed authority over Egypt and Ethiopia. 
Manas 1 sell, king of Judah, was brought as a prisoner be 
fore him at Babylon ; but after a few years' detention was 
restored to his throne, by the clemency of the Assyrian 
monarch. The Babylonian reign of Esar-haddon lasted 

14. First well-established date in Assyrian history ? Date of Tiglath Pileser'a 
invasion of Palestine ? What conquests did he make ? 

1 5. Give an account of Shalmaneser's invasion ? 

1 6. What expeditions were undertaken by Sennacherib ? Their results ? 

IT. Who was the last great king of Assyria ? His conquests? What Jewish 
king was made prisoner by him ? Duration of his reign ? 



16 THE MOST ANCIENT NATION'S. [B. C. 606. 

thirteen years (from 680 B. o. to 667 B. a), but how long 
he reigned subsequently at Nineveh cannot be positively 
ascertained. 

18. After this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined, 
and was frequently attacked by the Medes, then rising 
into power. In 606 b. c. (or 625 b. a), Nin'eveh was 
taken and destroyed by these people, under their king 
Cy-ax'a-res. The last king, Sar'acus, called Sar-dan-a-pa'- 
lus by the Greeks, finding that he could make no success- 
ful resistance, set fire to his palace, and perished, with all 
belonging to him, in the conflagration. Assyria then be- 
came a Median province, and afterward, with Babylonia, 
formed one of the divisions of the Persian empire. 

19. Nineveh, in the time of Herod'otus, had ceased to 
exist ; and when Xen'ophon passed it (401 B. a), during 
the expedition of which he gives an account, the very 
name had been forgotten, though he testifies to the extent 
of the deserted city, stating that the height of the ruined 
walls was 150 feet. 

Media. 

20. The fall of Nin'eveh produced a great change in the 
condition of Western Asia. Babylon became independent 
under a line of native kings, who in a short time raised 
their country to a very high degree of power and pros- 
perity. The Medes, then just risen into power, rapidly 
overran and subdued the whole region from the Caspian 
Sea to the Ha'lys River, and made war upon Lyd'ia, a 
country lying farther west. 

21. These people, resembling the Persians in origin and 
language, coming from the east, had settled in the region 
lying immediately south of the Caspian Sea, and were at 

1 8 . What was the subsequent history of Assyria ? When and by whom waa 
Nineveh taken ? What was done by Saracus, or Sardanapalus ? What became of 
Assyria ? 

1 9. What is said of the subsequent history of Nineveh ? 

20. What was the effect of the fall of Nineveh ? What was accomplished by 
the Medes ? 

21 . Who were the Medes ? How did their power commence ? 



B. C. 708.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 17 

first subject to the Assyrians; but about 708 b. a, the 
various tribes united and threw off the Assyrian yoke, 
choosing a king named Dej'o-ces, and making Eclat' ana 
their capital. 

22. His son Phraor'tes subdued the Persians, and at 
his death was succeeded by Oyaxares, who spread his con- 
quests so widely, as to be considered the founder of the 
Great Median Empire, He was succeeded by Astyages 
(as-ti'ah-jez), whose daughter married a Persian prince, and 
gaye birth to Cyrus, afterward called The Great. Cyrus, 
being bold and aspiring, put himself at the head of the 
Persian tribes, and marching with a large army into Media, 
deposed Astyages, and uniting the Median and Persian 
dominions under himself as monarch, thus founded the 
Great Persian Empire. 

Ltdia. 

23. Lyd'ia was situated in the western part of Asia 
Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful soil and 
great mineral wealth, its chief river, the Pacto'lus, abound- 
ing in gold, which was also found in the neighboring 
mines. Hence the Lydians soon became corrupted by 
luxury and vicious indulgences. They are supposed to 
have settled in Asia Minor about 720 b. c. The early 
history of this people is fabulous and unreliable. 

24. During about two centuries the Lydian monarchy 
occupied a prominent position in the history of Western 
Asia ; and when Oyaxares the Mede overran this part of 
the country, he was completely checked in his career of 
conquest by the Lydians under their king, Alyattes (d-le- 
at'tez) ; and after a war of six years, in which he had been 
often defeated by the Lydians, Oyaxares retired beyond the 

22. Conquests of Phraortes and Cyaxares ? By whom was the Median Empire 
founded ? By whom and in what manner was the Persian Empire founded ? Ori- 
gin of Cyrus the Great ? 

23. Where was Lydia situated? For what noted? Sources of its wealth? 
When did the Lydians settle in Asia Minor ? Their early history ? 

24. Duration of the Lydian power ? What war during the reign of Alyattee ? 



18 THE MOST AKCTEKT RATIONS. [B.C. 610. 

HaTys, the boundary of the Lydian kingdom at that 
time. 

25. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said 
to have been terminated in a singular way. Their two 
great armies had come to an engagement (610 B. c.*), 
when, in the midst of the battle a total eclipse of the sun 
occurred, which so alarmed the soldiers that they imme- 
diately retired from the conflict. The two monarchs there- 
upon concluded not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance 
with each other ; and peace continued to subsist between 
these two powers until the time of Cyrus, about half a 
century afterward. 

26. Alyattes is said to have reigned about forty years 
after the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast 
monument, inferior only to the great pyramids of Egypt. 
Its base was formed of immense blocks of stone, the struc- 
ture above being a great mound of earth. This mound 
has been explored in modern times, and a chamber found 
within, formed of solid blocks of marble, which gave evi- 
dence of having been rifled of its contents long before. It 
was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 

27. This king was succeeded (about 568 b. c.) by his 
son Croesus (kre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being 
by far the richest monarch of his time. He is also dis- 
tinguished as the last monarch of Lydia ; for, having made 
war upon Cyrus the king of Persia, he was entirely de- 
feated ; and his capital Sardis being taken by the enemy, 
he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus to be 
burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward released. 
"Thus, within a very few weeks, from being a powerful 
aud prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he 

* This is Grote's estimate. According to Pliny, 584 B. C. 



25. In what remarkable way was this war terminated? Date of the battle? 
How long did peace subsist ? 

26. How long did Alyattes reign ? What singular structure did he erect ? 

27. By whom was he succeeded ? For what is Croesus noted ? His fate ? What 
became of Lydia ? 



B.C. 2700.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 19 

was reduced to the condition of a captive and a be'ggar, 
dependent upon the will of a despot whose anger he "had 
provoked." Lydia consequently became a province of the 
Persian Empire. 

Ancient Egypt. 

28. Egypt is one of the most interesting countries de- 
scribed in history, being greatly celebrated for its antiquity, 
its remarkable civilization, singular institutions, and great 
power and influence in the ancient world. Its early history 
is involved in fable ; but it seems to be settled that the first 
king was called Me'nes, and that he founded the famous 
city of Mem'phis, although the time at which he lived is 
variously estimated by chronologists. (Probably about 
3700 b. c.) 

29. In the third century B. c, Ma-ne'tho, an Egyptian 
priest, compiled a history of his country, in which he di- 
vided the period from Menes to the final loss of independ- 
ence (about the middle of the fourth century) into 30 
dynasties. Although this work itself has perished, chrono- 
logical abstracts from it are preserved in other ancient 
writings ; and these, together with the allusions found in 
the Bible, and the accounts given by Herodotus and other 
ancient writers, with what has been gleaned, in modern 
times, from the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the monu- 
ments, constitute all the sources of ancient Egyptian his- 
tory. 

30. The history of the first seventeen dynasties, occu- 
pying a period of about twelve centuries, is very much 
involved in obscurity, the monuments only affording a few 
scattered facts and dates.. The most famous of the pyra- 
mids are supposed to have been erected during the fourth 



2 8 . How is Egypt distinguished ? Its early history ? The first king ? 

29. What are the sources of Egyptian history ? How many dynasties are enu- 
merated by Manetho ? 

30. During what period is the history unknown or uncertain? Date of the 
Pyramids ? What is said of Memphis ? The Ilyksos ? 



20 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B.C. 971. 

dynasty ; in which period the city of Memphis attained a 
very high degree of splendor, and the state of civilization 
of the people was qnite advanced. The most noted event 
was the invasion and conquest of the country by a foreign 
people from the East, who ruled probably from the fifteenth 
to the eighteenth dynasty, under the name of the Hyk'sos, 
or " Shepherd Kings." 

31. These kings ruled in Lower Egypt as military 
despots, and very much oppressed the native people. It 
was during the reign of one of these, as it is now believed, 
that Joseph was made the chief minister, and that Jacob 
and his family were allowed to settle in the land of Goshen. 
It is supposed that they remained in Egypt a little more 
than two centuries, and that the exodus took place about 
1652 B. c, during the rule of the 17th dynasty, which ap- 
pears to. .have been of Assyrian origin. 

32. During the next three dynasties, the Egyptians en- 
joyed an independence from foreign rule, the first monarch 
of the eighteenth dynasty having expelled the Shepherd 
Kings and reinstated the native sovereigns. Some of the 
greatest of the Egyptian monarchs belong to this period. 
The most noted 5 were Thot'mes III., who subdued Syria, 
and reduced Nineveh and perhaps Babylon to his sway 
(1444 b. c.) ; Thotmes IV., who caused the Great Sphinx 
to be constructed ; and Ra-me'ses L and II., the latter of 
whom, called Sesos'tris by the Greeks, was a very great 
conqueror, and adorned both Egypt and Nubia with many 
splendid temples and other edifices. The exploits of these 
monarchs are recorded in pictures and hieroglyphs on the 
monuments. 

33. She'shonh, called Shi' shah in the Bible (1 Kings, 
xiv. 25), attacked Judah and took Jerusalem, despoiling it 
of all its treasures (971 b. c.) This event is depicted on 

3 1 . Where and how long did the Hyksos rule ? At what period are the Israelites 
supposed to have settled in Egypt ? When did they leave it ? 

32. When did Egypt become independent ? What is said of Thotmes HI., 
Thotmes IV., and Barneses I. and n. ? How are their exploits recorded ? 



B. C. 605.] THE MOST ANCIEKT NATIONS. 21 

monuments found in the great temple at Karnak. Tirlia'- 
Tcah, of the 25th dynasty, came to the assistance of the 
Jewish king Hezekiah against Sennacherib, the dreadful 
destruction of whose army has been already mentioned. 
This dynasty was of Ethiopian origin ; and hence Tirhakah 
is called in the Bible the King of Ethiopia. 

34. The 26th dynasty was commenced by Psammet'iclius 
L, who by means of Greek mercenaries acquired an abso- 
lute power oyer the whole country. His successor, NeTca'o, 
or Ne'chos II, attempted the construction of a canal across 
the isthmus of Su'ez, but desisted after 120,000 men had 
perished in the undertaking. After defeating Josiah, king 
of Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, 
(605 B. c.) A-ma'sis, virtually the last of this dynasty, had 
a long and prosperous reign ; but having incurred the dis- 
pleasure of Oamby'ses, king of Persia, his son and suc- 
cessor, Psammen'itus, after a brief reign of six months, 
encountered the Persian host, and was defeated at Pelu'- 
sium, 525 B. c. Thus Egypt came under the power of 
Cambyses, who treated the people with very great cruelty. 

35. During the remaining dynasties, from the battle of 
Pelusium to 350 B. c, Egypfc was engaged in a constant 
struggle with the Persians for its independence, which it 
often regained, but as often lost. In these efforts it was 
greatly assisted by the Greeks. Its final conquest by the 
Persians took place at the date above mentioned ; since 
which time the prophecy of Eze'kiel, that "there shall be 
no more a prince of the land of Egypt," has been literally 
fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever occupied the 
throne for a period of more than 2000 years. The subse- 
quent history of Egypt will be related in connection with 
that of the nations to whom it has successively belonged. 

33. Invasion of Judah by Sheshonk? What is said of Tirhakah ? Why called 
in the Bihle "King of Ethiopia ? ,: Where is Karnak? Ans. At Thebes. 

34. Give an account of Psammetichus I. What great work was attempted by 
Nechos II. ? What led to the Persian invasion ? Its result ? 

35. In what contest was Egypt engaged during the remaining dynasties ? By 
whom was it aided? Its final conquest, and the fulfilment of Ezekiel's prophecy ? 



22 THE MOST AHCIEJST RATIONS. 

36. Civilization of the Egyptians. The early 
population and civilization of Egypt were due to its ex- 
traordinary fertility, caused by the annual inundations of 
the Nile. In fact, this region may be geographically 
described as the valley of that river, extending about 500 
miles from north to south, and bounded on the western 
side by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, and on 
the east by low ranges descending to the Bed Sea. It was 
anciently divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt. 

37. Upper Egypt, or the TJieb'-a-is, as it was often called, 
included the narrow valley in the extreme southern part. 
Its capital was the great city Thebes, which, in the time of 
its splendor, is said to have extended over twenty-three 
miles, and to have had one hundred gates. The ruins of 
splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks, and sphinxes 
still bear witness to its wonderful size and grandeur. 

38. Middle Egypt, or Heptan'omis, as it was called on 
account of its seven districts, embraced the wider portion 
of the Nile basin below the Thebais. Its capital was 
Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs who received and pro- 
tected the Israelites. This district contains the finest of the 
pyramids, which are situated on the west side of the Nile, 
and extend for a distance of about seventy miles. 

39. Lower Egypt consists of the Delta of the Nile, an 
extremely fertile region, and anciently very populous. The 
entire population of Egypt must have been large at the 
earliest periods. It has been estimated at seven millions, 
under the Pharaohs. The construction of the Great 
Pyramid, it is said, required the constant employment of 
100,000 men. 

40. The Egyptians were a brown race, and were divided 
into seven distinct castes, or ranks, — of which the priests 

36. Cause of the civilization of Egypt? Of its extraordinary fertility ? Hom 
is its situation described ? How was it divided ? 

37. Describe Upper Egypt. What is said of its capital, Thebes ? 
3 8 . How is Middle Egypt described ? 

39. Lower Egypt ? What estimate is given of the population of Egypt ? 

40. The Egyptians— their color, castes, and religion ? 



THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 23 

and warriors were the most honored; next, the agricul- 
turists, merchants, mariners, and artisans ; while shep- 
herds, the lowest caste, were held in great abomination. 
The Egyptian religion was a gross superstition, the lower 
orders of the people worshipping the most degraded ani- 
mals, idols, &c. Astrology formed a prominent part of 
the national belief; hence their close observation of the 
heavenly bodies. 

41. Their progress in the mechanical arts was. consider- 
able, as is seen in the inscriptions on the monuments. 
The weaving of cotton and linen cloth, working in copper 
and brass, and pottery, were among the most prominent 
branches of manufacture. Agriculture was pursued with 
great skill and industry. A considerable traffic was car- 
ried on with other countries, gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and 
slaves being brought from Ethiopia ; incense from Arabia ; 
and spices from India ; and for these articles were ex- 
ported principally grain and cloths. This commerce was 
chiefly carried on by Greek and Phoenician merchants, 
since the Egyptians had not attained any skill in ship- 
building. 

42. Much advancement was made also in the fine arts, 
painting, sculpture, and music. The skill in architecture 
which they had acquired is shown by the magnificent 
edifices, the ruins of which still exist ; such as the tem- 
ples, pyramids, obelisks, &c. These exhibit a peculiar 
style, but are very remarkable for their massive grandeur 
and regularity. The great pyramids were, in ancient times, 
counted among the wonders of the world. 

43. The government was an absolute monarchy, but the 
priestly caste had very great influence, since there was a 
close union between the government and religion of the 

41. What mechanic arts were pursued? Agriculture? Commerce? How car- 
ried on ? 

42. What progress had the Egyptians made in painting, sculpture, &c. ? Their 
architecture ? 

43. How is their °rovei-nment described ? How connected with religion ? Origin 
of the custom of embalming ? 



24 THE MOST AKCTE^T KATIOKS. [B. C. 750. 

country. There were religious ceremonies prescribed for 
every important action, and these even the kings were 
obliged to observe. The general belief that the soul would, 
after a certain long period, return to the body from which, 
at death, it had departed, caused great care to be taken to 
preserve the body from decay. Hence the custom of em- 
balming, and hence also the pyramids, which seem to have 
been only tombs, constructed by the kings, to preserve 
their mortal remains from decay. 

Ethiopia. 

44. Directly south of Egypt lay the country of the 
Ethiopians, a nation the origin of which is lost in anti- 
quity. Its capital, Mer'o-e, fro*m its situation on the upper 
Nile, became the emporium of Arabia, Egypt, and other 
great nations in its vicinity ; and Ethiopia grew to be one 
of the most powerful states of the ancient world (about 
1000 b. c.) For a time it was tributary to Egypt ; but (about 
750 B. c.) it acquired its independence, under Sab'acus, and 
in its turn subdued Egypt, which it kept under its sway 
about sixty years. 

45. During the reign of Psammetichus, 240,000 Egyp- 
tians emigrated to Ethiopia, and settling there added 
greatly to the prosperity of the State. After subduing 
Egypt, Oambyses invaded Ethiopia ; but his soldiers suf- 
fered incredible hardships from famine in the deserts, and 
having reached Mereo, which he captured, he was obliged 
to relinquish his design and return to Egypt. About five 
centuries later, Ethiopia was conquered by the Eomans. 

PH03^ICIA. 

46. This region, bordering on the eastern shore of the 

44. Situation of Ethiopia ? Its capital ? To what country was it tributary ? 
Under what king did it achieve its independence ? 

45. What emigration took place from Egypt to Ethiopia? What monarch at- 
tempted its conquest? The result? When conquered by the Romans ? 

46. What was the situation of Phoenicia ? For what noted? What is said of 
Tyre and Sidon ? Which were the most ancient colonies of the Phoenicians ? 
Which was the greatest of their colonies ? 



B.C. 878.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 25 

Mediterranean Sea, is noted as having contained iSHdon 
and Tyre, the most ancient commercial cities mentioned 
in history. These two cities were independent, each being 
under a government of its own. They were not only cele- 
brated for their commerce, but became the great colonizing 
powers of the ancient world. Their most ancient colonies 
were Ga'des (now Cadiz), in Spain, and U'tica, in Africa. 
Some of the earliest settlements in Greece are said to have 
been made by, Phoenicians. The greatest of their colonies 
was Gar'thage, on the northern coast of Africa, founded 
by Di'do, a Tyrian princess, 878 B. c. 

47. Their manufactures of glass and linen, perfumes 
and purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and 
they were universally considered the most skilful workmen 
in gold, silver, ivory, bronze, &c. Their ships visited the 
most remote parts of the* Mediterranean Sea, and even 
passed the Straits into the Atlantic, reaching Britain and 
the Cana'ries, They also carried on an active slave-trade. 

48. Sidon (or Zidon) was under the dominion of Tyre- 
in the eighth century, when the country was invaded by 
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. It then submitted to the 
invader, and Tyre, after a long siege, was also subdued. 
The latter was besieged and taken by Nebuckadnez'zar 
(587 b. c.) ; and both cities were afterward reduced by 
Cyrus (538 b. c.) Having revolted against the Persians, 
in 351 b. c, Sidon was fired by its own inhabitants and 
entirely destroyed. It was, however, afterward rebuilt ; 
and both cities, in 332 b. c, were compelled to submit to 
Alexander the Great, Tyre yielding to the conqueror after 
a determined resistance of seven months. 

Syeia and Palestine. 

49. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite 

47 Sources of their wealth ? 9o what countries did their ships penetrate ? 

48. What is said of Sidon ? By whom were Tyre and Sidon conquered in the 
eighth century ? Give their subsequent history. 

49. What was the situation of Syria ? What is said of Damascus ? Who were 
its most noted kings ? 



26 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B.C. 1095. 

extent situated to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. It 
was called by the Hebrews A' ram. Damascus was the old- 
est and most important city, and seems to have been an 
important place even in the times of Abraham, while in 
the subsequent history of the Jews it became quite promi- 
nent. King David gained a great victory over the Syrians 
of Damascus, and reduced their city. It afterward, how- 
ever, regained its independence, and under the three noted 
kings named Ben-lid' -dad contended repeatedly with Israel. 
Haz'-a-el gained important victories over the Israelites, rav- 
aged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem. Damascus 
was afterward successively subdued by the Assyrians, Per- 
sians, Macedonians, and Eomans. 

50. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean 
and the valley of the Jordan, extending about 145 miles 
from north to south, with an average breadth of less than 
fifty miles. Yet within this small area were enacted the 
most momentous events in the world's history. Pal'es- 
tlne is but another name for Philis'tia, or the country of 
the Philis' tines, those fierce idolaters, with whom so many 
and so long wars were waged by the Israelites. Their chief 
cities were Ash'dod or A-zo'-tus, As'ke-lon, Gath, Ga r za, 
and Ek'-ron^ all noted in sacred history. 

51. Of the twelve tribes of Israel, nine and a half were 
located to the west and two and a half to the east of the 
Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, 
Moses being only permitted to catch a distant glimpse of 
the promised land. After the death of Joshua, followed 
the period of the Judges, which lasted about five centuries. 
The last of the Judges was Samuel, who, when the people 
demanded a king, anointed Saul (1095 B. a). 

52. Saul was succeeded by David, during whose reign 

50. What was the extent of Palestine ? What is said of the Philistines ? Give 
the names of their chief cities ? 

5 1 . What was the location of the twelve tribes of Israel ? Give an account of 
their early history there. Who was their first king? 

52. How long did David reign ? What was the extent of the kingdom during 
his reign ? What was the character of David's reign ? 



B.C. 975.] THE MOST ANCIEKT NATIONS. 27 

(from 1055 to 1015 B. a), the kingdom of Israel stretched 
from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates Biver, and 
from Syria to the Bed Sea ; and probably contained a pop- 
ulation of at least five millions. He encouraged navigation 
and trade, particularly with Tyre, and sought to instruct 
I lis people in the arts. The events of his splendid but 
troubled reign, with a minute account of his character and 
conduct, are recorded in the Bible (2 Sam. and 1 Chron.). 

53. Thjs reign of Solomon (1015-975 b. c.) was the most 
splendid period of the Jewish history. For him was re- 
served the honor of building the great temple of Jehovah. 
He formed alliances with the surrounding nations, opened 
an active trade with Egypt, and, to facilitate his commer- 
cial objects, erected Tad'mor in the desert, which after- 
ward became so renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a 
superb navy, at a port (E'zi-on-ge'ber) which he established 
at the northern part of the Bed Sea. The history of his 
wisdom, his prosperity and wealth, and his fall into idol- 
atry and sin, is greatly interesting and instructive. (1 Kings, 
ii.-xi.) 

54. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom was di- 
vided, in consequence of the tyranny and insolence of his 
son Re-lio-bo' am, against whom ten tribes revolted and fol- 
lowed J er -0-1)0 'am, who established himself at Slie'cliem, as 
king of Israel. To Behoboam were thus left only two 
tribes, forming the kingdom of Judali. A desultory war 
was maintained between the two divisions during most 
of the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. 
(1 Kings, xii.) 

55. Israel. — The history of the successive kings of Israel 
is a sad record of war and sin. These kings were noted 
only for their wickedness and idolatry, and brought upon 
the people, in consequence, the severe punishments of God. 

53. Describe the reign of Solomon. 

54. What caused the division of the kingdom ? What kingdoms were formed ? 
What is said of the reign of Jeroboam ? 

55. What is said of the kings of Israel ? How did this kingdom end ? 



28 THE MOST ANCIENT' NATION'S. [B. C 586. 

It was terminated by the invasion of the Assyrians, to 
whom the last king, Ho-slie'a, was compelled to surrender 
Sama'ria, and the ten tribes were carried into captivity 
(721 B.C.). (2 Kings, xvii. 6.) Their place was supplied by 
Babylonian settlers, from whom, with a small part of the 
Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 

56. Judah. — This kingdom lasted 135 years longer. 
Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but three 
reigns were marked by virtue and piety. During the reign 
of Je-hosh' a-phat the kingdom was in a more prosperous 
condition than it had been since the days of Solomon. 
Hezehiah's reign is remarkable for the invasion of Sen- 
nacherib, and the miraculous destruction of his army. It 
was on this occasion that the shadow on the sun-dial was 
made to move back to confirm the wavering faith of Heze- 
kiak. (2 Kings, xx. 9.) 

57. The last king was Zed-e-ki' all, during whose reign 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem, and 
destroyed it, sending the unfortunate monarch in chains 
to Babylon, whither were also transported the miserable 
inhabitants (588 B. c). The temple was razed to the ground 
(2 Kings, xxxv.) ;* and for more than fifty years the holy 
city perished, except in the memory of the heart-broken 
exiles. The restoration of the Jews took place in 536 b. c, 
in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great Persian 
monarch. (2 Chron. xxxv. 22, and Ezra, i.) 

CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

B. C. 

2700. Menes, king of Egypt. 

2000. Invasion of Egypt by tlie Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 

1867. Settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. 

1732. Birth of Moses. 

^ 

* See also 2 Chronicles, xxxvi. 11-21, and Jeremiah, xxxix. 

56. How much longer did Judah last ? What is said of the reign of Jehosha- 
phat ? What noted events of Hezekiah's reign are mentioned ? 

5 7. Who was the last king ? What was his fate ? By whom was Jerusalem 
destroyed ? How and when were the Jews restored ? 



THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 29 

1700. Babylon, the capital of the Chaldees. 

1652. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 

1612. Death of Moses. 

1444. Syria subdued by the Egyptians, under Thotmes II. 

1320. Rarneses the Great, king of Egypt. 

1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 

1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 

1015. Accession of Solomon. 

975. Secession of the Ten Tribes, and the division of the kingdom, 

971. Jerusalem taken by Shishak, king of Egypt. 

878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 

750. Sabacus restores the independence of Ethiopia. 
747. Era of Nabonassar. 
'721. Samaria taken — and end of the Kingdom of Israel. 

720. The Lydians settle in Asia Minor. 

625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. 

610. Famous battle between the armies of Alyattes and Cyaxares. 

588 Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the captivity 
of the Jews. 

587. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 

568. Commencement of the reign of Croesus. 

546. Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

536. Restoration of the Jews by an edict of Cyrus. 

525. Pelusium taken, and Egypt subdued by Cambyses. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. What events immediately followed the Deluge ? 11 

2. Name the most ancient, monarchies 11 

3. Give an account of the establishment of the Babylonian monarchy 12 

4. Who were the Chaldees ? 13 

5. What is meant by the Era of Nabonassar ? 13 

6. What were the principal events of Nebuchadnezzar's reign ? 14 

7. Relate the subsequent history of Babylon 14 

8. Give an account of the foundation of the Assyrian Empire 14 

9. Mention the most noted of its monarchs , . 15-16 

10. What were the principal events of their reigns ? 15-16 

11. How did the Empire terminate ? Its last king ? 16 

12. Give an account of the rise of the Median Empire 16 

13. What led to the foundation of the Persian Empire ? 17 

14. Who were the Lydians, and where did they settle ? 17 

15. Name their most noted kings 17-18 

16. Eelate the principal events of their reigns 17-18 



30 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 

17. By whom was the Lydian monarchy overturned ? 18 

18. For what was Croesus noted ? 18 

19. State the sources of Egyptian history 19 

20. What portion of it is involved in obscurity ? 19 

21. Who were the most noted kings of Egypt ? 20-21 

22. What were the most important events of their reigns ? 20-21 

23. What great work was undertaken by Nekao ? 21 

24. Who was the last of the 26th Dynasty ? 21 

25. By whom was Egypt subdued in 525 b. c. ? 21 

26. Give a sketch of its history for the next two centuries 21 

27. What prophecy has been fulfilled in its history ? 21 

28. Give a sketch of the geography of Egypt 22 

29. Describe the civilization, government, &c, of the Egyptians 22-23 

30. What powerful state south of Egypt ? Its capital ? 24 

31. Give a sketch of its history 24 

32. Which were the most noted commercial cities of antiquity ? 25 

33. Mention their most important colony 25 

34. What were the sources of their wealth ? 25 

35. Give a sketch of their history 25 

36. Give a brief account of Syria and Damascus 26 

37. Where did the Philistines dwell ? Their chief cities ? 26 

38. Mention the most noted events in the history of Palestine 26-27 

39. What was the extent of the. Jewish kingdom during the reign of David ? 27 

40. What were the chief events of Solomon's reign ? 27 

41. Into what separate kingdoms was Israel afterward divided ? 27 

42. Give a sketch of the history ol the kingdom of Israel 27-28 

43. How did it end ? 28 

44. Give an outline of the history of Judah 28 

45. During whose reign was the miracle of the sun-dial ? 28 

46. What terminated the kingdom of Judah ? 28 

47. How and when were the Jews restored to their own country ? 28 

48. What is the oldest date referred to in ancient history ? 28 

49. Is it reliable ? 19 

50. What were the principal events between 2000 b. c. and 1500 b. c. ? 28-29 

51. What were the chief events between 1500 b. c. and 1000 b. c. ? 29 

52. What, between 1000 b. c. and 500 b. c. ? 29 

53. Name the different kingdoms treated of in this section in the order of 

their foundation 12-28 

54. State the geographical situation of each. (See Map, p. 12.) 12 

55. What was the capital of each ? (See Map, p. 12.) 12 



B.C. 525.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 31 



section ii. 
Persia, Greece, and Macedonia. 

From the Foundation of the Persian Empire to the Conquest of 
Greece by the Romans. 

1. Persia, at first of small extent, under Cyrus became 
a vast empire extending from the ^Egean (e-ge'an) Sea be- 
yond the Euphrates ; and included, besides the original 
territory, Media, Assyria, Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. 
All these countries were subdued by Cyrus in the short 
space of twenty-nine years (558-529 B. c.) ; so great were 
the activity, enterprise, and address of that extraordinary 
man. His death took place during an expedition against 
the Mas-sag' e-tw, (g like /,) a barbarous tribe living east of 
the Caspian ; and he was succeeded by his son Cam-by' ses. 

2. The reign of Cambyses lasted nine years, its chief 
event being the invasion and conquest of Egypt (525 b. a), 
in which country he played the part of a ruthless tyrant. 
A large army which he despatched against the temple of 
Amnion in an oasis of the Desert (Si-ivaW) perished in a 
simoom. He cruelly murdered his brother Smer'dis ; but 
an impostor, under the name of Smerdis, usurped the throne 
of Persia, during his absence in Egypt; and a short time 
after this the death of Cambyses took place in consequence 
of a wound which he received from his own sword while 

Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map No. 1.) Name the principal divisions of 
Asia Minor. What region southeast of the Euxine Sea ? What mountains between 
the Euxine and Caspian Seas ? What country south of the Caspian ? What people 
farther east ? What rivers tributary to the Sea of Aral ? What country between ? 
What river bounded the Persian Empire on the east? Its chief tributaries ? To 
what water was the Indus tributary? What desert region north of the Erythraean 
Sea ? Where was Persepolis ? What country northwest of the Euxine Sea ? What 
country south of the Danube River ? 

1. What was the extent of Persia under Cyrus? What countries did it com- 
prise ? When and how did the death of Cyrus occur? 

2 What was the length of Cambyses' reign ? What were its chief events ? What 
were the circumstances of his death ? 



32 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 449. 

mounting his horse. — This king appears to have been the 
A-lias-u-e rus spoken of in Ezra. 

3. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of the fraud, 
was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- 
rius L, called Hys-tas'pes, as king. This monarch was 
active and successful. During the thirty-six years of his 
reign (521-485 b. c.) he perfected the organization of the 
empire, dividing it into twenty provinces, over which he 
placed governors called by the Persians satraps, and select- 
ed as his capital Susa in the spring ; Ecbat'ana in sum- 
mer; and Babylon in the winter. The most important 
.wars which he waged were those against the Scythians and 
the Greeks. 

4. With an immense army he crossed the Bos'porus by 
means of a bridge of boats, and advanced against the 
Scythians, a barbarous race dwelling on the other side of 
the Danube, in what is now European Turkey. The expe- 
dition was unsuccessful ; and leaving a force to conquer 
Thrace, he returned to Persia, and marched his army to 
the East, extending his authority as far as the Indus. The 
Io'nians, a Grecian colony dwelling on the western coast of 
Asia Minor, having revolted, and having been assisted by 
some of the Greeks, who took Sardis and burnt it, he de- 
termined to bring the whole of Greece under his authority. 
In two expeditions, however, he was entirely defeated, and 
while preparing for a third died, 485 b. c. 

5. Xerxes I. (zerx'ez), the son and successor of Darius, 
renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian States, col- 
lecting a vast army and fleet for the purpose; but he 
also was defeated, and after a reign of twenty years, trans- 
mitted the enterprise to his son Ar-tax-erx'es I., who was 
compelled finally to make peace with the Greeks, after the 
war had continued about fifty years (449 B. a). The sub- 

3. Who succeeded Smerdis the impostor? What is said of Darius I. ? 

4. How did his war against the Scythians result ? That against the Greeks ? 

5. Who renewed the attempt ? Under whose reign did the war end ? Who was 
the last king of Persia? By whom was he subdued? How long had the Persian 
Empire lasted ? 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 2. 



2 2 Zo7igutude. East 2 3> from, Jjondoru 2 b 




ANCIENT 

GREECE 



B. C. 329.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 33 

sequent history of Persia is of no importance except as it is 
connected with that of the Greeks. The last king* was Darius 
III., called Cod-o-man'nus, who was subdued by Alexander 
the Great, and Persia became a part of the Macedonian 
Empire, having lasted a little oyer two centuries. (329 
b. c.) 

6. The Persians, at first, and until after the reign of 
Cyrus, were a hardy race, of simple manners, and great 
courage in war ; but subsequently they became, like the 
Medes, soft and effeminate, losing their bold hardihood, 
and becoming entirely corrupted by luxury and yicious 
indulgence. Their religion was, before the conquest of the 
Medes, a simple worship of the Spirit of Good ( O-ro-mas'des), 
and a belief in an Evil Spirit (Ah'ri-man) to be hated and 
shunned. They afterward became converts to the religion 
of Zo-ro-as'ter, and worshipped the element of fire, under 
priests called Ma-gi. The impostor Smerdis belonged to 
the Magian priesthood. 

Greece. 

7. The country known in history as Greece anciently 
consisted of three quite distinct parts : the first in the 
north, composed of Tlies'sa-ly and E-pi'rus ; the second, in 
the middle, called Hel'las, which was the most important 
part ; and the third, the peninsula forming the southern 
portion of the country, called Pel-o-pon-ne' sus (now 
called Mo-re' a). To these was afterward added Mace- 
donia, which was situated to the north of Thessaly and 

Map Questions. (See Progressive Map, No. 2). — What was the situation of Hel- 
las ? Peloponnesus ? Epirus ? Thessaly ? Macedonia ? What were the divisions 
of Hellas ? Of Peloponnesus ? What was the capital of Laconia ? Messenia ? Elis ? 
Argolis ? Attica ? Name the principal towns of Boeotia. What town in Achaia ? 
Phocis ? Euhoea ? Epirus ? What town near the east coast of Attica ? What 
towns in Thessaly ? Macedonia ? What gulfs south of Macedonia ? East of 
Peloponnesus? South of it? What island in the Saron'ic Gulf? What island 
near the coast of Messenia ? What river in Laconia ? In Acarnania ? What moun- 
tains east of Epirus ? South of Thessaly ? What pass leading from Thessaly 
into Greece ? 

6. Describe the Persians. What was their religion ? Who were the Magi? 

7. Of what parts did Ancient Greece consist ? TSTame the most important states 
of each, and point them out on the map. 



34 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 776 : 

Epirus. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided 

into several small states, of which the most important 

were the following : — 

Hellas. — At'tica, Boeo'tia, Pho'cis, East and West Lo'cris, 

Do'ris, JE-to'lia, and Ac-ar-na'ni-a. To the west was 

the large island of Eubma {u-be'ah). 

Peloponnesus. — Laco'nia, Ar'go-lis, Achaia (a-Jca'yah), 

Ar-ca'dia, E'lis, and Mes-se'nia. (See Map of Greece.) 

8. The primitive inhabitants of Greece are supposed to 
have been the descendants of Ja'van, the son of Ja'phet ; 
and hence it was called by the Hebrews Javan. A Celtic 
race from the East, called the Pe-las'gl, settled in Thrace in 
very ancient times; and these with other kindred races 
passed into Greece, and are known in the fabulous history 
of the period as Hel-le'nes, Lel'e-ges, &c. The Hellenes 
appear to have been the most energetic, since the rest of 
the Pelasgians disappeared before them. They also gave 
to the country its name, Hellas, by which, exclusively, it 
was known in ancient times. 

9. The history of this country may be divided into two 
portions ; the legendary or traditional history, and the 
authentic history. The first commences at the earliest 
periods and extends to the first Olympiad (776 b. a). The 
second extends to the conquest of Greece by the Eomans 
(146 B. a). The most ancient traditions represent the 
country as divided into a large number of small states, 
each under its own chief or petty king, and engaged in 
war and piracy. This period of the history is often called 
the Heroic Age, since it abounds in fabulous stories of men 
of superhuman strength and valor, such as Her'eules, The- 
seus (the'-suse), Achilles (a-hil'lez), &c. 

10. The most important events of the Heroic Age were 



8. Who were the successive inhabitants of Greece? Who were the Pelasgi? 
What is said of the Hellenes ? 

9. How may the history of Greece be divided ? When does each division com- 
mence ? What is meant by the Heroic Age ? 

10. What was the Argonautic Expedition ? What is said of the Trojan War f 



B. C. 776.] PEKSIA, GREECE, A^D MACEDONIA. 35 

the Argonautic Expedition and the Trojan War. The first, 
supposed to have occurred about 1225 B. c, was an enter- 
prise the object of which, according to the tradition, was 
to bring from Colchis (kol'kis) a golden fleece. The 
heroes who engaged in it, sailing in a vessel called Argo, 
were called the Argonauts. Whether it was actually a 
voyage of discovery or commerce, or a mere piratical expe- 
dition, cannot be ascertained. The only account of the 
Trojan War is contained in the poems of Homer. Troy 
was besieged ten years by the Greeks, and was finally taken 
by stratagem (1184 b. a). 

11. This period appears to have been followed by one of 
great revolutions and migrations of the Hellenic races. 
The JEo'lians were driven from their home in Thessaly, 
and proceeded southward, expelling in their turn the 
ancient inhabitants of the lands which they settled (1124 
b. a). Another race from Thessaly, called the Do'rians, 
invaded the Peloponnesus, and made an entire conquest 
of it (1104 B. C.). This movement, being conducted by 
the descendants of Her'cules, who had been banished 
more than a century previously, is called in history the 
Return of the Heracleidm* {her -a-cli'de). Other migra- 
tions led to the ^Eo'lian, Dor'ic, and Ion'ic colonizations of 
Asia Minor. The dates of these events are not entirely 
reliable. 

12. The authentic history of Greece may be properly 
considered as commencing 776 b. c. ; that is, at the first 
recorded Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed be- 
tween two celebrations of the Olympic games. These games 
were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at Olym'pia, in Elis, 
and constituted the most splendid national festival of the 
Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity. 

* Heracleidce is a Greek word which means descendants of Herctdes. 



1 1 . What migrations followed the Trojan War ? What is meant hy the Eeturn 
of the HeracleidiB ? What colonies were established in Asia Minor ? 

12. What was an Olympiad ? What were the Olympic games ? Who was Ly- 
enrgus ? His age ? " 



36 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 547. 

It was, as is supposed, about this time (776 b. c.) that Lycur'- 
gus reformed the government and laws of Sparta, and gave 
to it the constitution by which it afterward acquired the 
supremacy in Grecian affairs. 

18. Sparta, the capital of Laconia, sometimes called 
Lacedcemon (las-e-de'mon), was originally Pelasgian, but was 
conquered by the Dorians when they invaded the Pelopon- 
nesus, and soon became the chief of the Dorian states. 
Lycurgus by his laws designed to perpetuate the primitive 
simplicity and hardihood of the people, by preventing the 
spread of luxury, and by educating the youth so as to 
make them brave and patriotic soldiers. The effect was 
soon brought to a test in the wars with the Messenians, 
the first of which lasted twenty years (743-723 B. c.) ; the 
second, seventeen (685-668 b. a), and resulted in the 
entire defeat of the Messenians, and their dispersion into 
various parts. For the next three centuries Messenia 
formed a part of Laconia. 

14. Wars were also waged by Sparta with the other 
states of the Peloponnesus, and resulted in extending 
her authority over the whole peninsula. The Arcadians 
had become her subject allies (560 b. c.) ; Ar'gos* was too 
much weakened by defeat to make any resistance (547 
B. c.) ; and no northern state at this period could com- 
pete with her in military power. The government of 
Laconia was vested in two hereditary kings, a Senate 
elected by the nobles, and five magistrates called the 
Epli'o-ri.\ The kings were of limited power; they pre- 
sided in the Senate, and led the armies. The Ephori were 
annually elected, and were clothed with very great author- 
ity. They could restrain the kings, control the public 

* In Grecian history the states are often called by the names of their capital cities. Thus, La- 
conia is irenerally known as Sparta ; Argolis, as Argos, &c. 

t Ephori, plural of ephonis, which means an overseer or inspector. 



13. What is said of Sparta? What was the design of the laws of Lycurgus ? 
What wars were waged with the Messenians ? 

14. What conquests were made by the Spartans ? Describe the Spartan govern 
merit. Who were the Ephori ? What were their powers ? 



B. C. 560.] PERSIA, GREECE, AN"D MACEDONIA. 3? 

assemblies, and they were the arbiters of peace and 
war. 

15. The most important state of Central Greece, and 
afterward the great rival of Sparta, was Attica, the capi- 
tal of Which was Atb'ens, in some respects the most 
renowned city in the world. It was the seat of learning 
and the arts, and may justly be considered the mother of 
modern civilization. Its population was of Ionian origin, 
although in the mythic history of Athens it is said to have 
been first settled by a colony from Egypt, under Ce' crops. 
Its government was until the eleventh century monarchi- 
cal ; but after the return of the Her'aclei'dfe, it was vested 
in elective magistrates, called Arclions (ar 'Icons). The 
last king of Athens, Co'drus, in a war with the Dorians, 
sacrificed his life to save the city from capture. 

16. Athens suffered for centuries from anarchy and mis- 
rule ; but "in the seventh century (624 b. c.) it adopted 
the laws proposed by Dra'co, which were so severe that 
they were said to have been written in blood. They gave 
place (594 b. c.) to the constitution and laws devised by 
So'lon. According to these, the government was vested in 
a Senate or Council, an assembly of the people, and a 
chief magistrate called Archon,* with eight inferior execu- 
tive officers, also called by the general name of arclions. 
The most venerable court of justice was the A-re-op'a- 
gus,\ the members of which were inspectors of education 
and morals, as well as administrators of the laws. 

17. The legislation of Solon laid the foundation of 
Athenian greatness, and though sometimes disturbed by 
usurpation, remained in force for more than four centuries. 
In 560 b. c, the government was seized by Pi-sis' -tra-tus, 

* Archon means in Greek a ruler. 

+ Areopagus, Marx'' Hill, the Court being so called from its situation on a small eminence at 
Athens named the " Hill of Mars." . *» 



1 5. What is said of Athens ? Her population and government ? Her last king ? 

16. What is said of Draco? Of Solon and his laws? 

1 7. Who was Pisistratus ? What was the character of his government ? Who 
were his successors ? How long did they reign ? 



38 PERSIA, GREECE, A^D MACEDONIA. [B. C. 510. 

wlio exercised a despotic sway for thirty- three years, and 
transmitted his authority to his two sons, Hip'pias and 
Hippar'chus, called the Pisistrat'idce.* He ruled with 
moderation, patronized literature and the arts, opened a 
public library, and collected, it is said, the poems of 
Homer. Hip'pias and Hippar'chus also governed for some 
years with mildness and justice; but in 514 b. c, an act 
of tyranny committed by Hippias caused a conspiracy to 
be raised against them, and Hipparchus was slain. Hip- 
pias ruled with great severity for four years longer, and 
then was expelled (510 b. c.) with the aid of the Spartans. 
He took refuge at the court of Darius, king of Persia. 

18. Age of Despots. It was not in Athens alone that 
despotic power overturned the popular government. From 
650 to 500 b. c, there were few of the Grecian cities that 
escaped this calamity. Hence this period has been called 
the Age of Despots. In the city of Sicyon (sish'e-on) a 
despotic dynasty lasted for more than a hundred years ; 
and another in Cor'inth, seventy-four years. The most 
noted of the latter was Per-i-an'der, whose sway (from 625 
to 585 b. a), though oppressive and cruel, made Corinth 
the wealthiest and most powerful of all the commercial 
cities of Greece at that time. Like Pisistratus, he was a 
patron of literature and the arts, and was enumerated 
among the seven wise men of Greece. 

19. After the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias from 
Athens, the government underwent some modifications, 
and a very remarkable institution was devised to prevent 
for the future any powerful and ambitious citizen from 
making himself despot. This was the famous Ostracism, 
by which any citizen could be banished for ten years, with- 
out trial or even any formal accusation ; but simply by a 

* PisistratidcB is the plural of Pisistratides, which means son of Pisistratus. 



18. What was the " Age of Despots ?" Who was Periander ? 

19. What was the Ostracism ? Its design and effect ? 



B. C. 490.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 39 

vote of the people, each citizen writing the name of the 
person whom he wished to banish on a shell,* and six 
thousand yotes being required against the person to deter- 
mine his condemnation. No attempt at usurpation fol- 
lowed the establishment of this law. 

20. The Persian War. The Greek colonies in Asia 
Minor had been subject to Croe'sus, but when the Lydian 
monarchy was overturned by Cyrus, they fell under the 
Persian yoke, and thus continued until 500 b. c, when an 
insurrection against Darius broke out at Mi-le'tus, and 
spread through all the Greek cities in Asia. In this revolt 
assistance was rendered by the Athenians, who crossed to 
Asia Minor and burnt Sar'dis ; but the Ionian fleet having 
been defeated, and the city of Miletus captured by the 
forces of Darius, the revolt was speedily subdued, and the 
Greek colonies were completely subjugated, and treated with 
great severity, — all the inhabitants of Miletus being either 
put to death or sent into captivity. 

21. The aid given by Athens to the Ionians drew dowr 
the wrath of Darius upon all Greece, which he determined 
to subdue, being still further instigated to this by the 
tyrant Hippias, then a resident at his court. In pursu- 
ance of this design, he despatched an expedition under 
Mar-do'ni-us, which proved an entire failure, the fleet being 
wrecked off Mount Ath'os, and a large part of the army 
drowned. The forces were still further weakened in a 
night attack made by the Thracians, and Mardonius was 
compelled to return (492 B. a). 

22. A second expedition, under Da' Us and Ar-ta-plier'nes, 
sailed across the iEge'an Sea, and after reducing several isl- 
ands, landed at Mar'a-thon, twenty-two miles from Athene. 

* Called Ostracon — whence the name Ostracism. 



20. What was the cause of the Persian War ? Give an account of the revolt of 
the Ionians. How did it result ? 

21. What expedition against Greece in 492 b. c. ? Where is ML Athos ? (Map 
No. 2.) 

22. Give an account of the second expedition. What is said of the hattle oi 
Marathon ? Its date ? 



40 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 480. 

Here they were met by a small army of Athenians, under 
Mil-ti r a-des, and completely routed (490 B. a). This con- 
flict is reckoned among the world's great battles ; for had 
the Persians succeeded, the character of European civiliza- 
tion would have been entirely changed, becoming Asiatic ; 
and besides, the extraordinary disparity of the forces (the 
Persians being about ten times as numerous as the Greeks), 
makes it a yery remarkable engagement, — especially as, up 
to that time, the Persian conquests had scarcely known a 
check. The credit of this great victory belongs to the 
Athenians, since they had only the aid of a small band of 
Platseans (pla-te'ans). 

23. Ten years afterward, the attempt was renewed by 
Xerxes, who collected one of the largest armies the world 
has ever known, besides an immense fleet, and crossing the 
Hellespont by means of two bridges which he caused to be 
constructed, marched to the Pass of Tlier-mop 'y-lm^ where 
he was opposed by a small army under Le-on'i-das, a Spartan 
general. The defence was successful until a traitor dis- 
covered to the Persians a path across the mountains, when, 
seeing no hope of victory, but being forbidden by the laws 
of Sparta to flee from the enemy, Leonidas dismissed the 
forces of the allies, and fell upon the Persians with his 
little band of 300. After making vast slaughter, they all 
perished (480 b. a). 

24. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much 
smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait of Sal'a-mis,\ 
and was defeated with immense loss ; so much so that Xerxes, 
who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay to Persia, and left 
the conquest of Greece to his general Mardonius (480 B. a). 
The chief command of the allied fleet had been assigned 
to Eu-ry-bi'a-des, the Spartan ; but the credit of the victory 

* Thermopylc? — Hot Gates, so called from the hot springs there. This pass led from Thessaly 
into Phocis. — (See Progressive Map, No. 2.) 
t Between the Island of Salamis, in the Saronic Gulf, and the mainland.— (See Map of Greece.) 



23. What attempt was made by Xerxes ? Describe the battle of Thermopylae, 

24. What great naval battle was fought ? With what result ? 



B. C. 479.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 



41 



was given to TJie-mis'to-cles, the Athenian, through whose 
influence and sagacity the action was brought on. 



30 last .from londtm. 35 




25. In the meanwhile the land forces of the Persians had 
inyaded Attica, and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhab- 
itants unfit for war having fled to the neighboring islands 
for protection ; but the army of Mardonius, 300,000 strong 
and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries, did not come to any 
decisive action till the next year (479 b. a), when it was de- 
feated and almost utterly destroyed at Pla-tcB r a* by the allied 
army of the Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, under Pau- 
sa'-ni-as, a Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian 
Ar-is-W des. On the same day the Athenians gained a 

* A town in the southeastern part of Boeotia. — (Map No. 2.) 

Map Questions. — In what part of Asia Minor was Asia? Galatia ? Cappa- 
tlocia ? Pontus ? Bithynia ? Pamphylla ? Cilicia ? Where was Mysia ? Caria ? 
Phrygia? Lydia? Paphlagonia ? What town was in the western part oi 
Lydia ? What town was in the southern part of Cilicia ? In the eastern part ? 
What town was in the southern part of Caria ? In Ionia ? In Phrygia ? What 
river in Pamphylia ? What promontory west of Caria ? What island west of 
Mysia ? 

25. What happened to Athens? When and by whom was the Peisian army 
defeated ? Give an account of the battle of Mycale. 



42 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 471. 

great victory over the combined land and Laval forces of 
the Persians, at Myc'ale, in Asia Minor. 

26. Having driven the Persians from their country, the 
Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian 
dominions. This expedition was entirely successful; the 
Greek cities of Cyprus were set free, and Byzantium (be- 
zan'she-um),* after a long siege, surrendered. At this point, 
the Spartans, who had been the leaders in the war, lost 
their ascendency by the treason of Pausanias. Intoxicated 
by the fame and wealth which he had . acquired at Plataea 
and by his subsequent success, and ambitious of more 
splendor and influence than he thought the little state of 
Sparta could confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, 
offering to deliver Greece into his power if he would give 
him his daughter in marriage, thus connecting him with 
the royal family of Persia. 

27. This plot was, however, discovered before its consum- 
mation. Pausanias was recalled and put to death by order 
of the Ephori (471 B. a), and the command of the allied 
forces was transferred to Aristides. A league was also 
formed among the Ionians and some of the Greek islands, 
under the leadership of Athens, which was called the 
" Confederacy of De'los,"f since the deputies met at that 
island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much 
to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about 70 
years. The well-established character of Aristides for in- 
tegrity and prudence, contributed no little to this impor- 
tant measure. Indeed, the justice of this distinguished 
man had passed into a proverb. He and Themistocles, 
during the interval between the victory at Marathon and 
the invasion by Xerxes, had contended for political su- 
premacy in the public assemblies at Athens ; but Aristides 

* Byzantium was on the Bosporus : it was afterward calied Constantinople. 
t Principal island of the Cyclades, a group in the yEgean Sea. 



26. What act of treason did Pausanias commit ? 

27. What was his fate i What league was formed ? What is said of Aristides f 
Who was his rival ? 



B. C. 449.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 43 



failing, had been banished by the Ostracism (483 b. a). He 
returned, however, just in time to aid his country at the 
battle of Salamis. 

28. The glory gained by Themistocles at Salamis, to- 
gether with his great ability and prudence, gave to him at 
Athens unlimited influence. He caused the city to be 
rebuilt and strongly fortified, notwithstanding the opposi- 
tion prompted by the mean jealousy of the Spartans. 
Being, however, accused of participating in the treason of 
Pausanias, he was banished by the Ostracism (471 B. a), 
and took refuge in the dominions of the Persian monarch 
Artaxerxes, where he lived in great splendor and dignity 
till his death (449 b. a). Aristides survived the banish- 
ment of his great rival only four years. He died honored 
by his countrymen, and with a reputation for virtue and 
patriotism which no one could impeach. 

29. Ci'mon, son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristides in the 
leadership at Athens. He gained a splendid victory over 
the Persians at the Eu-rym'e-don Eiver,* but afterward gave 
offence to the Athenians by favoring the Spartans, and 
was banished (461 B. a), through the contrivance of his 
rival Per'i-cles, who by this means obtained the leadership 
at Athens, which he retained until his death, more than 
thirty years afterward. Pericles possessed extraordinary 
talents as an orator and statesman, and his administration 
was the most splendid the Athenians ever had. Art and 
literature flourished, and the city was embellished with the 
most magnificent edifices. 

SO. Cimon was, after a few years, recalled from exile, and 
prosecuted the war against the Persians ; but died during 
the siege of Oitium (sistie-um), in Cyprus. The Athenians, 

* In Pamphylia, southern part of Asia Minor.— (See Map, p. 41.) 



28. What was the character of Themistocles? What caused his hanishment ? 
When did the death of Aristides occur ? . 

29. What victory was gained hy Cimon ? How and when did the administra- 
tion of Pericles commence ? What was its character ? .^ 

30. How did Cimon's death occur? When did the Persian war end? What 
war and truce with the Spartans ? 



44 PEKSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. [B. C. 422. 



however, gained another decisive victory over the Persians, 
which ended this long war (449 b. a). In the meanwhile 
war had been carried on with the Spartans, with whom 
a truce was concluded at first for five, and afterward 
for thirty years. The latter trace was broken by a great 
conflict between Athens and Sparta, each assisted by its 
allied states. This was the famons " Peloponnesian War." 

31. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty be- 
tween Cor'inth and Cor-cy'ra,* one of her colonies ; and as 
Athens took sides with the latter, the Dorian Confederacy 
accused her of violating the terms of the thirty years' truce, 
and a Spartan army invaded Attica (431 B. a). Unable, 
with his few allies, to contend against the superior military 
power of the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- 
ing within the city, and sending his numerous fleet to ravage 
the enemies' coasts. A violent plague, however, broke out 
in Athens, and Pericles fell a victim to it, in 429 B. c. 

32. The most noted events of the early part of the war 
were the revolt of Les'hos\ from Athens, and the brave de- 
fence of Platsea against the Spartans. The flower of the 
Spartan army having been blockaded by the Athenian fleet 
at Sphac-te'ri-a, the Spartans applied to the Athenians for 
peace, which, through the influence of Gle'on, a low and 
noisy demagogue, who had succeeded Pericles in the 
leadership of the popular assemblies, was refused. Sphac- 
teria was afterward attacked, and the Spartans compelled 
to surrender. The Athenians were severely defeated by the 
Boeotians at De'U-um, and a short time afterward lost their 
empire in Thrace by the battle of Am-phip'o-Hs, in which 
Bras'i-das, a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, 
the Athenian, both generals being slain (422 b. a). 

* A large island off the western shore of Epirus : now Corfu. 

+ A large and noted island off the western coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor. Capital, Mitylehie. 
(See Map, p. 41.) 

3 1 . What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war ? How and when did it com- 
mence ? Policy pursued by Pericles ? Cause and time of his death ? 

32. What were the principal events of the early part of the war? Why did the 
Spartans sue for peace ? Who was Cleon ? In what battle were the Athenians 
defeated? Who fell at Amphipolis ? Where was Amphipolis ? (See Map of Greece.) 



B. C. 405.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 45 

33. The next year, through the influence of Nicias (nisli'- 
e-as), who succeeded Cleon at Athens, peace was made with 
Sparta. Though designed to be a fifty years' truce, it lasted 
only a few months. Al-ci-M'a-des, a handsome and talented, 
but dissolute pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- 
suaded Argos to renew the war. He then induced the Athe- 
nians to send an expedition against Syracuse, to the com- 
mand of which himself and Mcias were assigned. Alcibiades 
was, howeyer, recalled ; and being accused of committing 
an act of great outrage and impiety, and condemned to 
death, fled to Sparta. Mcias suffered a most disastrous 
defeat; and as the armament had been one of the finest 
ever sent out by the Athenians, they were greatly weakened 
by this event (413 b. a). 

34. Alcibiades passed from Sparta to Sardis, taking 
refuge with the Persian satrap, Tis-sa-pher'nes. He, how- 
ever, succeeded in gaining some brilliant naval victories 
for the Athenians, and was recalled by them with great 
enthusiasm and joy, but only again to be driven into exile 
(407 B. a). Athens unjustly caused six of her generals to 
be put to death, for alleged neglect of duty, after which 
the chief command was conferred upon Co'non. Though 
an able officer, he allowed himself to be surprised by the 
Spartan general Ly-san'der at JE'gos-pot'a-mos, on the Hel- 
lespont, and nearly all the fleet was destroyed (405 B. a). 
Lyssnder the next year proceeded to Athens, captured the 
cit), and thus ended this long war. For a minute account 
of these events we are indebted to the historians Thu-cyd'- 
i-des and Xen' o-plion. 

35. Athens was thus driven to the most humiliating sub- 
mission. She was compelled to destroy her port, agree to 
undertake no military enterprise except under the com- 



33. What was the " Peace of Nicias ?" How was the war renewed ? Give an 
account of the expedition against Syracuse. Where is Syracuse ? (See Map, No. 3.) 

34. What is related further of Alcibiades? What ended the war? Historians 
of the war ? 

35. Results of the defeat of Athens ? Who restored the popular government? 



46 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 399. 

mand of Sparta, and also to consent to the abolition of 
her popular government, and to accept in its stead that 
of thirty magistrates, styled afterward, from their cruel 
and oppressive measures, the Thirty Tyrants. The demo- 
cratical government was, however, soon restored through 
the patriotism and gallantry of Thras-y-du'lus, by whom 
and his associates the tyrants were expelled (403 B. a). 

36. A few years after this, perished, by an unjust sen- 
tence of the Athenian judges, at the age of 70 years, 
Socrates, the most virtuous and illustrious of all the an- 
cient philosophers, whose uninspired teachings make the 
nearest approach to the morality of the Gospel. Accused 
of irreligion and of corrupting the youth by false doctrine, 
he defended himself with great boldness, but displeased the 
judges by not supplicating their mercy. He spent the in- 
terval of thirty days between his condemnation and death 
in tranquil discourse with his disciples, and having drank 
the cup of hemlock with a firm and cheerful countenance, 
amid his weeping friends, died with perfect composure, ex- 
pressing to the last his belief in an immortality beyond the 
grave (399 b. a). His most eminent disciples were Pla'to and 
Xenoplion, from whom we derive our knowledge of his 
doctrines, since he himself committed nothing to writing. 

37. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. A short time 
after the close of the Peloponnesian War, the Greek soldiers 
being unemployed, a large number (about 14,000), under a 
Spartan leader, named Cle-ar'clms, entered into the service 
of Cyrus, surnamed the Younger, a Persian prince, and the 
brother of the reigning king, Artaxerxes II. His object 
was believed by them to be an attack upon the Pisidians, 
but the design really was to deprive his brother of the 
throne of Persia. They marched to Cu-nax'a, near Babylon, 



36. Give an account of the condemnation and death of Socrates. Who were 
his most eminent pupils ? 

37. Into whose service did some of the Greek soldiers enter? For what ob- 
ject ? What battle was fought ? With what result ? (Where was Cunaxa ? See 
Map, p. 47.) 



B.C. 401.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 



47 



where an immense army of 900,000 Persians engaged the 
forces of Cyrus, consisting of 300,000 together with the 
Greek mercenaries. The latter gained an entire victory; 
but Cyrus, in a rash attempt to slay his brother, was killed, 
and the expedition was abandoned (401 B. a). 




38. On their retreat, the Greek generals were drawn into 
a conference with the Persians, and treacherously put to 
death. Xenophon, who had been a volunteer in the expe- 
dition, was immediately chosen commander ; and the retreat 
was continued by the Greeks for a distance of more than 
1500 miles, amid incredible hardships from cold, hunger, 
and the assaults of their enemies, until they at last reached 
the Euxine, when they found their numbers reduced to 
about 10,000. This celebrated expedition, as well as the 
retreat which closed it, forms the subject of perhaps the 
most interesting work of Xenophon. He afterward with 
the same forces entered into the service of a Thracian king, 
and subsequently assisted the Spartans in Asia Minor 
against the Persians. 

38. Give an account of the retreat. What led to the election of Xenophon? 
At what place were the generals killed ? (see Map, p. 47.) 



48 PERSIA, GREECE, AlsD MACEDONIA. [B. C. 371. 

39. In this war with the Persians, A-ges-i-la'us, the 
Spartan king, gained some important victories, bnt was 
suddenly recalled to defend his country against a powerful 
league, consisting of Argos, Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, 
formed to attack her. The confederate army was, how- 
ever, defeated by Agesilaus in the battle of Cor-o-ne'a; but 
about the same time the Spartan fleet was almost entirely 
destroyed at Onidus (ni'dus) by Co'non, the Athenian 
(394 b. a). The Athenians by this victory regained the 
naval supremacy which they had lost at iEgospotamos. 

40. Peace of Antalcidas. The Grecian states being 
thus at war with each other, each party contended for the 
alliance and aid of the Persians. Oonon, who by means of 
Persian gold had been enabled to equip his fleet, and to 
rebuild the walls of Athens, was, through the machinations 
of Sparta, brought into suspicion with the Persian monarch 
and thrown into prison. The Spartans thus obtained the 
alliance of the Persians, and through their emissary, An- 
tal'ci-das, negotiated a peace by which the Greek cities of. 
Asia were given up to Persian rule. This disgraceful treaty 
was ratified by the other states (387 B. a). 

41. Theban War. The Spartans, having unjustly 
seized the citadel of Thebes, were expelled through the influ- 
ence of Pe-lop'i-das and E-pam-i-7ion' das, two distinguished 
Theban patriots. This brought on a war between Thebes 
and Sparta, in which the former state gained great glory. 
In the noted battle of Leuc'tra (371 b. c.) the Spartan 
army was defeated by forces much inferior in number, com- 
manded by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, and the Pelopon- 
nesus was thus thrown open to invasion. Agesilaus, however, 
by his vigorous measures saved Sparta from capture ; and 
Epaminondas, after laying waste the territory of Laconia 

39. What victories were gained by Agesilaus ? What one by Conon? What 
was its effect ? 

40. How was peace made with the Persians ? 

41. What caused a war between Thebes and Sparta? What battles were 
fought ? (Where were Leuctra and Mantinea ? See Map of Greece.) 



B. C. 359.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 49 

with fire and sword, retired from the peninsula. Other 
invasions of the Peloponnesus were afterward made by the 
Thebans ; and in the last of these, the famous battle of 
Man-ti-ne'a was fought (362 B. a), in which the Spartans, 
under Agesilaus, were again defeated by Epaminondas, but 
the latter was mortally wounded. 

42. Epaminondas is justly regarded as one of the greatest 
heroes and patriots Greece ever produced. Wise in council, 
and brave and skilful in battle ; an accomplished statesman 
and orator; and, what is still more, a man of unswerving 
truth and honesty, he was, during all the subsequent history 
of Greece, universally considered the best model for imi- 
tation. With him the influence of Thebes began and ^nded. 
His last advice was followed by his mourning countrymen, 
and peace was concluded before they departed from the 
Peloponnesus. Agesilaus died the next year, in an expe- 
dition in which he had engaged, though 80 years of age, to 
assist Egypt against the Persians. The subsequent history 
of Greece is closely connected with that of Macedonia. 

Macedonian Empire. 

43. Previous to the time of Philip, Macedo'nia occupied 
only an obscure position among the nations of the world, 
though it had existed as a kingdom for about four centu- 
ries. Being detained as a hostage at Thebes, Philip had 
enjoyed the benefit of a thorough education under Epami- 
nondas ; and when, at the age of 24, he ascended the throne 
(359 b. a), he possessed all the accomplishments of a skil- 
ful soldier and statesman ; while his great talent for arti- 
fice made him especially suited for the part of a wily 
politician. 

44. Greece, at that time, presented an excellent field for 
these peculiar talents. Torn to pieces by internal dissen- 

42. What was the character of Epaminondas? When did the death of Agesi- 
laus occur ? 

43. What is said of the early history of Macedonia? Of the character and edu- 
cation of Philip ? 

44. What was the state of Greece at that time ? 



50 PEESIA, GREECE, A:N"D MACEDONIA. [B. C. 357. 

sions, possessing no national union, the states were con- 
stantly forming temporary leagues against each other, and 
preparing themselves for the attack of some crafty and 
powerful invader. Athens, distinguished for her progress 
in literature and art, was very much weakened by luxury ; 
Sparta had become corrupted and enervated by the gold 
gained in her conquests, and though still warlike, was 
actuated only by the meanest sentiments of jealousy and 
revenge toward her sister states. The other states were 
only influential in promoting, by petty disputes, the general 
anarchy. 

45. Having organized a powerful and well-trained army, 
Philip* began his schemes by seizing Amphipolis and estab- 
lishing a military station at PM-lip'pi. Meanwhile a war 
broke out between Athens and her maritime allies, called 
the Social War, which having lasted about three years, 
ended in the defeat of Athens and secured the indepen- 
dence of the more important allies (355 b. a). In the 
meantime another war had broken out in Greece, called 
the Sacred War (357 B. a), caused by the Pho'cians, who 
instead of paying a fine imposed by the Am-phic-ty-on'ic 
Council, for having occupied and cultivated a tract of land 
devoted to the Delphian Apollo, invaded the sacred terri- 
tory, and surprised and took Del' phi* itself. 

46. This brought on a general warj most of the states 
taking up arms against the Phocians, who, however, suc- 
ceeded in forming an alliance with Athens and Sparta. 
After the respective parties had been weakened by several 
battles, Philip interfered. Having totally defeated the 
army of the Phocians in Thessaly, he took and destroyed 
O-lyn'tlius ;f and then marched into Greece, and after tak- 
ing possession of Phocis, occupied Delphi. He then as- 

* A town in Phocis, noted for its celebrated temple and oracle of the god Apollo. 
+ A celebrated city on the southern coast of Macedonia. (Map of Greece.) 



45 . How did Philip begin his schemes of conquest ? What was the social war ? 
Its result ? What was the sacred war ? 

46. What part did Philip take in this war ? Its result ? 



B. C. 338.] PEKSIA, GEEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 51 

sembled the Amphic'tyons, and procured a decree that the 
towns of the Phocians should be destroyed, and that their 
two votes in the council, of which they were deprived, 
should be transferred to Macedonia. This ended the Sacred 
War (346 B. a), the effect of which was to make Macedon 
the leading state in Greece. 

47. Meanwhile the great Athenian orator, De-mos'tlie-nes, 
had endeavored, by his splendid eloquence, to arouse his 
countrymen against the crafty designs of Philip ; but al- 
though the latter persisted in his schemes of conquest, it 
was not until 338 b. c. that any effort was made to oppose 
his progress. In that year a battle was fought at Chw-ro-ne'a, 
in which Philip disastrously defeated the combined forces 
of Athens and Thebes, and thus completed the subjugation 
of all Greece. He, however, left to the states a nominal 
independence in their local affairs, he himself controlling 
all public measures. 

48. Philip next convened a congress of the Grecian 
states at Corinth, obtained from them a formal declaration 
of war against Persia, and returned home to prepare an 
expedition for the conquest of that country, which he had 
for some time meditated. Before, however, these prepara- 
tions were completed, he was assassinated by Pausanias, 
a young Macedonian noble (336 b. c.) ; and Alexander, 
afterward called the Great, ascended the throne, being 
then only twenty years of age, but thoroughly educated, 
partly under the celebrated philosopher Ar'is-td-tle. 

49. The Thebans having revolted, Alexander immediately 
marched against them, and taking their city, razed it to the 
ground, and sold its inhabitants, to the number of 30,000, 
into slavery. After this terrible example, leaving An-tip'a-ter 

47. What is said of Demosthenes? Battle of Chseronea? Its result? Where 
was Chaeronea ? (See Progressive Map, No. 2.) 

48. What measures were adopted by Philip against Persia ? What caused his 
death ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

49. How did Alexander suppress the revolt of Thebes ? Where was his first 
battle with the Persians fought ? What was its result ? Describe the battle of Is- 
bus. What was its result ? (Where was Issus ? See Map, p. 52.) 



B. C. 332.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 53 

as regent in Macedonia, lie proceeded on the expedition 
planned by his father (334 b. a). Having crossed the 
Hellespont with an army of 35,000 men, he advanced to 
the Gra-nl'cus river, and defeated the Persian army, 
120,000 strong, assembled on its banks. He then passed 
through Asia Minor, all of the cities of which surrendered 
to him; and the next year defeated a vast army, under 
Darius, the Persian monarch, at Is'sus. So complete was 
the rout, that Darius fled in dismay, leaving his mother and 
wife to the mercy of the victor. These Alexander ordered 
to be treated with the greatest respect and attention. 

50. He then advanced toward the south, and all the cities 
of Phoenicia surrendered to him, except Tyre, the siege of 
which delayed him seven months. He built a pier across 
the strait, half a mile wide, which separated the city from 
the main land, and thus having gained access to the walls, 
he battered them to pieces and took the city by storm 
(332 b. a). No mercy was shown to the wretched inhabit- 
ants, eight thousand of whom are said to have been mas- 
sacred, and the remainder sold into slavery. 

51. In the mean while Darius solicited peace, offering to 
cede to Alexander the western half of the empire, and to 
give him his daughter in marriage. This, however, Alex- 
ander promptly refused, and continued his march toward 
Egypt, capturing Ga'za on the way. Passing through 
Egypt, he penetrated the Lib'yan desert, and paid a visit to 
the temple of Jupiter Am'mon. He also founded in Egypt 
the city oi Alexandria,* which for many centuries after- 

* This was the first city founded by Alexander and named after him. He subsequently 
founded no less than seventeen cities, in different parts of Asia, to each of which he gave the 
name of Alexandria. (See Map, p. 52.) 



Map Questions. (See Map, page 52.) Name the places on Alexander's march 
from the Granicus to Issus. What places did he pass from Issus to Alexandria ? 
On his return from Alexandria to Arhela ? From Arbela to Ecbatana ? From 
Ecbatana to Maracanda ? What was the most northern point reached ? The most 
eastern ? What places did he pass on going from Alexandria the Farthest to the 
point of return on the Hyphasis ? At what points did great battles occur ? De- 
scribe his return route. Which way did the fleet proceed under Nearchus ? 

50. How was Tyre taken ? How were the inhabitants treated ? 

5 1 . What offer was made by Darius ? What country did Alexander next in- 
vade ? What city did he found ? What did Alexandria become ? 



54 PEESIA, GEEECE, AKD MACEDONIA. [B. C. 328. 

ward was the first commercial city in the world, being the 
grand emporium of Europe, Africa, and India. 

52. Turning again to the east, he crossed the Euphrates, 
and prepared for the battle which was to decide the fate of 
Persia. On the plain of Gau-ga-me'la, a few miles from Ar- 
ie'la, Darius drew up his immense army, consisting of over 
a million Persians, which, with 40,000 foot and 7000 horse, 
Alexander, after a brief engagement, entirely defeated and 
put to flight (331 b. a). Proceeding to Babylon, he en- 
tered that city in triumph, having made himself, at the age 
of twenty-five, the master of all Western Asia, together with 
Egypt. 

53. He next advanced to Su'&a, a treasure-city of the 
Persians, which surrendered without resistance. Here were 
obtained gold and silver to the amount of 50,000 talents, 
and what was still more interesting to the Greeks, the 
spoils which Xerxes had carried off from Greece. Per-sep'- 
o-lis, the real capital of the Persian kings, was the next city 
occupied by the invader ; and here, it is said, the treasure 
captured amounted to 120,000 talents. Darius had in the 
mean while fled to Ecbatana, and thither Alexander went 
in pursuit, which he continued with great rapidity, until 
he reached Bactria, where the Persian monarch had been 
seized and put to death by the satrap of that province. 

54. Alexander, still pursuing his career of conquest, de- 
feated the Scythians on the banks of the I-ax'ar-tes, and 
took possession of Mar-a-can'da (now Samarcand), the 
capital of Sog-di-a'na, where he married a Bactrian prin- 
cess, named Rox-a'na (328 b. a). Here too it was that, at 
a banquet, in a fit of anger, he murdered his friend Cly'tus, 
who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. He 
next invaded India, defeated Po'rus, the king of that coun- 

52. What was the final engagement with Darius ? Its result ? 

53. What other cities and countries were subdued? What was the fate of 
I)arius ? 

54. What further conquests were made by Alexander ? Whom did he marry ? 
Whom did he slay in anger ? Why did he at last retreat ? 



B. C. 323.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 55 

try, on the banks of the Hy '-das 'pes, and after a brief rest, 
pushed on to the Hyph'a-sis, when the soldiers, worn out 
with their toils, positively refused to proceed any farther. 
He then gave orders to return. 

55. Having built a fleet, he sailed down the Indus to its 
mouth ; and then, leaving Ne-ar'chus to pursue the voyage 
of exploration, he marched through the burning desert to 
Persepolis, and thence by way of Susa and Ecbatana to 
Babylon, where he indulged in various schemes of further 
conquest. But, as he was about to set out on a campaign in 
Arabia, he was seized with a fever, said to have been oc- 
casioned by intemperance ; and after eleven days' illness, he 
expired (323 b. a). On his death-bed, being asked by one 
of his generals, to whom he desired to leave his throne, he 
answered : " To the worthiest among you ; but I am afraid 
my obsequies will be celebrated with bloody hands." He, 
however, gave his ring to Per-dic'cas. 

56. Of all the conquerors of antiquity Alexander was, 
without doubt, the most enterprising and renowned. The 
splendor of his military achievements should not, however, 
blind us to the moral depravity which could sacrifice, with- 
out a single pang of remorse, so many thousands of his 
fellow-creatures, merely to gratify a thirst for vain-glory. 
This insatiable desire seems to have been unmixed with 
any wish to benefit his subjects or mankind, although he 
founded cities which promised to be useful to him in car- 
rying out his ambitious views, and in perpetuating his 
memory. In the hands of Providence, however, he was 
undoubtedly an instrument of good ; since, by his con- 
quests, the two continents were brought into closer com- 
munication with each other, and the language, literature, 
and arts of Greece were carried into the East. 



55. In what way did he return? (Trace his route hoth in advance and on his 
return, from Map, p. 52.) What other conquests were meditated by him ? When 
and how did his death take place ? Did he leave a successor ? 

56. What was the character of Alexander? What was the result of his cou- 
quests ? (Point out on the Map the towns founded hy him, and named Alexandria.) 



56 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 322. 

57. In the mean while, the Spartans, under their king 
A'gis, had made a vigorous effort, in nnion with most of 
the other states of Peloponnesus (331 b. a), to throw off 
the yoke of Macedon ; but they were defeated with great 
slaughter by Antipater, Agis being slain in the battle. 
Athens had taken no part in this struggle ; but under the 
influence of Plio'cion, illustrious for the wisdom and 
moderation of his counsels and his stern republican sim- 
plicity and honesty, prosecuted the orators who had been 
active against the Macedonians, and, under a charge of 
bribery, drove them into exile. Among these was Demos- 
thenes. When, however, news arrived of the death of 
Alexander, the city gave way to the most excessive de- 
monstrations of joy, and Phocion's party lost all their 
influence. 

58. The Lamian War. In an expedition under Le-os'- 
the-nes, the Athenians and their allies gained some impor- 
tant victories over Antipater near La'mi-a ;* but Antipater 
being joined by Crat'e-rus, with a considerable force from 
Asia, entirely defeated them in Thessaly, and the war was 
at an end (322 b. a). Athens was compelled to give up 
her orators, including Demosthenes, who had been recalled 
from exile during the war : the latter, however, escaping, 
was finally compelled to take poison in order to escape from 
his pursuers ; while the others were cruelly put to death. 

59. Alexander's Successors. After Alexander's 
death, his half-brother Philip, and his infant son by Roxa- 
na, were declared partners of the throne, while the empire 
itself was parcelled out among the generals who were to 
rule as satraps, but Perdiccas was to act as regent. Being 

* A fortified town near the southeastern border of Thessaly. (See Map of Greece.) 



57. What effort did the Spartans make to regain their freedom ? What course 
did Athena pursue? Why? Who were banished ? Effect of Alexander's death 

of AfllPTlS ^ 

58. The Lamian war and its result ? (Where was Lamia ? See Map, No. 3.) 

59. How were the dominions of Alexander disposed of? What league was 
formed against Perdiccas ? Who succeeded him as regent ? 



B.C. 301.] PEESIA, GKEECE, AK"D MACEDONIA. 57 

suspected of a design to place himself upon the throne, a 
league was formed against Perdiccas by An-tig'o-nus, Ptol'- 
e-my, An-tip'a-ter, and Crat'e-rus ; and, in a war against 
them, he was assassinated (321 b. a). Antipater was then 
made regent, and the empire was again divided. 

60. Antipater died three years afterward, at the age of 
eighty, -and left the regency to Pol-y-sper'chon, a veteran 
general of Alexander. This displeased Cas-san'der, Antip- 
ater's son, who had expected to succeed his father, and 
kindled a war of several years between the two generals. 
During this war Cassander placed the administration at 
Athens under De-me'tri-us Plia-le're-us, a distinguished 
Athenian orator, statesman, and writer, who ruled the 
city for ten years with so much popularity that the Athe- 
nians raised 360 brazen statues to his honor. War having 
arisen between Antigonus and the other generals, Athens 
surrendered to Deme'trius Po-M-or-ce'tes,* the son of Antigo- 
nus ; and Phalereus, who, by his dissipated habits, had lost 
his popularity, was compelled to flee, all his statues being 
thrown down except one. 

61. After several years more of war, a decisive battle 
was fought near Ip'sus, in which Antigonus was slain and 
his army entirely defeated (301 b. c). This led to a more 
permanent division of the empire, and nearly closed this 
long series of wars, which so fully demonstrated the pro- 
phetic sagacity of Alexander, when he said his obsequies 
would be bloody. It also, perhaps, still further proved the 
wickedness and wanton cruelty of his nature, since he 
took no means to prevent so dreadful a result by definitely 
appointing a successor. During these wars the whole of 
Alexander's relations, including his mother, O-lym'pi-as, 
and his wife and son, were successively put to death. 

* Poliorcetes means, in Greek, the " Besieger of Cities." 

60. Who was the successor of Antipater ? What war ensued ? What is said 
of Demetrius Phalereus ? Demetrius Poliorcetes ? 

61. Where was Antigonus defeated? (Where was Ipsus? See Map, p. 41.) 
What was the result ? What became of Alexander's relations ? 



58 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B.C. 283. 



62. In the partition of the empire which took place 
after the battle of Ipsus, Cassander obtained Greece and 
Macedonia ; Ptolemy was confirmed in the possession of 
Egypt ; Ly-sim' a-chus had the greatest part of Asia Minor ; 
and Se-leu'cus, the whole country from the coast of Syria 
to the Euphrates. The latter founded on the river O-ron'- 
tes a new capital of his empire, which he named An'tioch, 
after his father, An-ti'o-chus. 

63. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, was not subdued. 
He retreated from Ipsus, and proceeded to Greece ; but the 
Athenians refused to receive him. After forming an alliance 
with Seleucus, he again appeared before Athens, which, after 
a long siege, he captured, expelling the tyrannical governor 
whom Cassander had appointed (295 b. a). The Atheni- 
ans were greatly moved by his noble forgiveness and lenity ; 
for instead of the dreadful punishment which they had 
expected, he supplied their wants, and did his best to 
relieve the miseries occasioned by the long siege which 
they had suffered. 

64. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius possessed 
himself of the throne of Macedon (294 b. a), which he 
occupied for seven years, when it was seized by Pyr'rhus, 
king of Epirus, and in a few months afterward by Lysim- 
achus (287 b. a). Thus the whole Macedonian Empire, 
excepting Egypt, under Ptolemy, was divided between 
Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius died a captive at 
the court of the latter, 283 b. c. The throne of Macedon 
was filled by Lysimachus only six years, when, hostilities 
having arisen between him and Seleucus, he was defeated 
by the latter in a battle near Sardis, and slain. This gave 
nearly the whole empire to Seleucus, who, however, sur- 
vived the conquest only one year, being treacherously 

62. What partition of the empire was made ? (Where was Antioch ? See Pro- 
gressive Map, No. 4.) By whom was it founded ': 

63. What was done by Demetrius ? What was his conduct toward Athens ? 

64. By what kings was the throne of Macedon successively filled ? Into whose 
power did nearly all the Macedonian Empire fall ? In what way ? What became 
of Demetrius ? Of Seleucus ? 



B.C. 243. PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 59 

assassinated in Thrace (280 b. a), by Ptolemy Ce-rau'nus, 
son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. 

65. Macedonia and Thrace were the same year invaded 
by an immense host of Gauls, nnder a leader named Bren- 
nus, and Ptolemy fell in a battle which he fought to repel 
them. The Gauls then passed into Greece, and reached 
Delphi, where they were repulsed with great loss. Some 
of them afterward settled on the Danube; others, in 
Thrace ; while a third part passed into Asia, and settled 
in the country called after them, Ga-la'tia . 

66. After the death of Ptolemy, the throne of Macedon 
was occupied by Antigonus Go-na'tas,* son of Demetrius, 
who reigned till 243 b. c, exercising a severe rule over the 
Greeks, whose cities he governed by means of petty tyrants 
appointed by himself. This tyranny led to a noted con- 
federacy, styled in history the "Achaean League," it 
being in fact the revival of an ancient league which had 
existed among the twelve chief cities of Achaia. It was 
soon joined by most of the important states of Greece, in- 
cluding Athens ; and, under its wise and patriotic leader, 
A-ra'tus of Sicyon (sish'e-on), acquired very great influence 
(243 b. a). 

67. At this period three powers contended for mastery 
in Greece : the A-chce'an League, the M-to'li-an League, and 
the Spartans. The iEtolian league was a confederation of 
tribes, which had gradually made themselves masters of 
Locris, Phocis, Bceotia, and some other states. The Spar- 
tans, under their celebrated kings A'gis and Cle-om! e-nes, 
had attempted to regain their ancient simplicity of man- 
ners and military hardihood. 

* So called from Gonni, a town in Thessaly, where he was born. 



65. Give an account of the invasion by the Gauls. Where did they settle? 
(What was the situation of Galatia ? See Map, p. 41.) 

66. What noted league was formed among the Greek states ? What led to itf 
Who was at its head ? (Where was Sicyon ? See Map of Greece.) 

67. What three pawers were there in Greece at this time ? What was the iEto- 
Iian league ? What did Agis and Cleomenes attempt ? 



60 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B.C. 183. 



68. Aratus, in a war with the Spartans, was obliged to 
call in the assistance of Antigonus Do' son,* king of Mace- 
don, who defeated Cleomenes and captured Sparta, which 
hitherto had remained unconquered (221 B. a). Aratus 
afterward entered into an alliance with Philip, king of 
Macedon, in a war against the iEtolians, which lasted till 
217 b. c. ; but having displeased Philip, he was by the 
orders of the latter poisoned (213 b. a). 

69. PMl-o-pm'men, styled " the last of the Greeks," suc- 
ceeded Aratus in administering the affairs of the Achaean 
league. He was a man of great talents and virtue. ' In 
207 b. c, he gained a great victory over the Spartans, not- 
withstanding they were assisted by the Eomans; and, in 
the general assembly of the Greeks, was hailed as the liber- 
ator of their country. The Eomans a few years after this 
made war upon Philip, king of Macedon, and defeated him 
in the famous battle of Cyn-os-ceph' a-lce,\ in Thessaly (197 
B. a). Philip was then compelled to withdraw his garri- 
sons from the Grecian towns, and the independence of 
Greece was solemnly proclaimed by the Eomans. 

70. The JEtolians having made war upon the Eomans, 
were completely subdued (139 b. a). Meanwhile Sparta 
joined the Achaean league; but the Messenians having re- 
volted against it, Philopoemen, in an attempt to reduce 
them, was taken prisoner and barbarously put to death, at 
the age of seventy (183 b. a). Mes-se'ne was, however, 
captured by the Achaeans the next year, and the murderers 
of Philopoemen punished. 

71. The Eomans, again invading Macedonia, defeated 

— ' w 

* Dnson means about to give, and was applied to this king on account of his habit of promising 
hut not performing. 

+ Ct/nosre])hahe means dogs' 1 heads, and was given to a range of elevated rocks in Thessaly 
resembling in appearance the heads of dogs. It is sometimes written Cynocephale. 



68. What befell Sparta ? What caused the death of Aratus ? 

69. Who was Philopoemen ? How did he become distinguished ? Describe 
the battle of Cynoscephalte and its result. (Where was Cynoscephalse ? See Map 
of Greece.) 

70. What ended the JEtolian league ? What caused the death of Philopoemen ? 

71. When was the battle of Pydna fought? Its consequences? Where was 
Pydna ?— (See Map of Greece.) When and by whom was Greece finally subdued ? 



B.C. 146.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. CI 

its last king, Per'seus, in the battle of Pyd'na (168 B. c.j, 
and reduced it to a province. The Eoman general, entering 
Greece, surrendered many of its cities to the pillage of the 
soldiers ; and no fewer than 150,000 of the inhabitants were 
captured and sold as slaves. A few years later, the Komans 
under Mum'mi-us again invaded Greece, being invited by 
the Spartans, who had quarrelled with the Achaeans. The 
last army of the latter surrendered at Corinth (146 B. a), 
and Greece became a Eoman province, under the name of 
Achaia. 

72. Grecian Colonies. — These were very numerous 
and widespread. The southern part of Italy was called 
Mag'na Grcecia, from the large number of Greek cities 
which it contained. One of the earliest was Cu'mce, an 
iEolic colony, on the Bay of Naples ; but the most promi- 
nent were Sy~b'a-ris, noted for its effeminacy and debauchery, 
and Cro'ton, distinguished for its athletes and physicians. 
After the destruction of Sybaris by its rival Croton, Taren'- 
tum took the lead among the cities of Magna Grsecia. 
Sicily also contained a large number of Greek cities, of 
which the most noted were Mes-sd'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Ag-ri- 
gen'tum. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, founded 734 
b. c. Its history will be given in connection with that of 
Rome. 

73. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western 
nart of the Mediterranean, of which Mas-sd'li-a (now Mar- 
seilles), founded 600 B. c, was the chief. On the African 
coast, Oy-re'ne was established, by the Spartans (630 b. a). 
It afterward became the capital of Cyrenaica (si-re-na'e- 
kah). The Ionic cities of Asia Minor were especially noted 
for their enterprise; and, during the eighth and seventh 
centuries, Miletus was the first commercial city of Hellas ; 
but Eph'e-sus afterward rivalled it in size and importance. 

72. What were the principal Greek colonies in Italy ? In Sicily ? Point them 
out on the Map. (See Progressive Map, No. 3.) 

73. What other colonies were there? What is said of Miletus? Ephesus? 
Point them out. (See Map, p. 41.) 



62 PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 

On the Propontis and the Euxine there were also numerous 
colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and Sin'o-pe were the most cele- 
brated. 

74. The Greeks were remarkable not only for keenness 
of intellect and delicacy of taste, but for the skill and tact 
with which they employed these faculties, both in the useful 
and in the fine arts. Architecture, painting, and sculpture 
were carried by them to a degree of perfection which has 
never been surpassed. The works of their poets and orators 
still remain unequalled by those of any subsequent age or 
country ; while their various systems of philosophy show a 
genius for deep speculation and subtle distinction, mingled 
with a refinement of sentiment, to be found in those of no 
other people. Had their virtue and patriotism been equal 
to their intellectual grandeur, Greece could never have 
been subdued. 

75. Being destitute of any political union, the Hellenic 
States destroyed each other by their mutual dissensions and 
wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and 
jealousies of the different races, and partly to the geograph- 
ical character of Greece itself, which, crossed in every direc- 
tion by mountain chains or divided by deep gulfs, provided 
those natural barriers which encourage local pride and hos- 
tility. There were, however, three institutions that gave 
them a certain degree of national unity : — the Amphictyonic 
Council, the Oracles, and the Public Games and other re- 
ligious festivals. 

76. The Amphictyonic Council was of very ancient or- 
igin. It consisted of deputies from the different states, and 
met usually twice a year, — at Delphi in the spring, and at 
Thermopylae in the autumn. Its express objects were to 
prevent acts of aggression against its members, and to pro- 

74. For what were the Greeks remarkable ? 

75. What caused the political disunion of the Grecian states ? What gave them 
a certain degree of unity ? 

76. Describe the Amphictyonic Council. What were the Oracles ? Which waa 
the principal one ? How generally was it consulted ? 



PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 63 

tect the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The Oracles were 
certain sacred spots where it was thought the will of the 
gods might be ascertained through the inspired answers 
of the priestesses. There were several, the most noted of 
which was that of Apollo at Delphi. Thither messengers 
came from all parts of Greece, and eyen from foreign coun- 
tries, to consult the Oracle. 

77. There were four great festivals at which the public 
games were celebrated, called the Olympic, Pyth'ian, Ne-me'- 
an, and Istli'mian games. The Olympic games were cele- 
brated at Olympia, in Elis, every fifth year, in honor of 
Jupiter, and drew together an immense assemblage from 
all parts of Greece, as well as from foreign countries. The 
exercises consisted of running, wrestling, boxing, chariot- 
racing, etc. ; and to be proclaimed a victor in these games 
was considered the highest honor a Grecian could attain. 
None could contend in them but those of the Hellenic race, 
and all who entered into these contests were obliged to take 
an oath that they would use no unfair means to obtain the 
victory. The only prize bestowed on the victor was a sim- 
ple garland of wild olive. 

78. The Pythian games were celebrated in honor of 
Apollo, every fifth year, near Delphi ; the JSTemean and 
Isthmian games, once in two years : the first, at Ne-me'a, in 
honor of Jupiter ; and the second, by the Corinthians on 
their isthmus, in honor of Neptune, the god supposed to 
preside over the sea. In these three festivals there were 
contests in poetry and music, as well as trials of strength 
and skill. The Olympic games were the most ancient. 
They were revived, it is said, by Lycurgus in 776 b. c. ; and 
hence this date, called the First Olympiad, was afterward 
employed by the Greeks as their principal chronological era. 

77. How many and what public games ? Describe tbe Olympic games. 

78. Describe tbe Pytbian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. What was the origin 
of the Olympiads ? 



64 PEBSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

B. C. 

| r 1225. Argonautic Expedition. 

f J 1184. Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 

| j 1124. iEolic migration from Thessaly. 

| 1 1104. Return of the Heracleidse. 

» f 776. Commencement of the Olympiads. Age of Lycur- 

I i gus. 

I L 748-23. First Messenian War. 

> r ■ 

I j 685-68. Second Messenian War. 

^ j 624. Draco gives laws to Athens. 

594. Legislation of Solon. 

560-27. Usurpation of Pisistratus. 

514. Insurrection at Athens. — Death of Hipparchus. 

510. Hippias expelled from Athens. 

501. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 

495. Miletus taken and the Ionian revolt subdued. 

492. Invasion of Europe by Mardonius. 

490. Battle of Marathon. — Persians defeated. 

485. Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia. 

483. Aristides banished from Athens by the ostracism. 

481. Themistocles the leading man at Athens. 

480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — Battle of Salamis. 

479. Battle of Platsea. 

478. Leadership transferred from Pausanias to Aristides. — 

Commencement of Athenian supremacy. 

471. Themistocles banished by the ostracism. — Death of 

Pausanias. 

461. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. 

449. Death of Cimon. — End of the Persian War. 

431. Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. 

429. Death of Pericles. — Plague at Athens. 

415. Expedition against Sicily, under Alcibiades and Nicias. 

405. Battle of JEgospotamos. 

403. The Thirty Tyrants expelled by Thrasybulus. 

401. Battle of Cunaxa, and Retreat of the " Ten Thousand." 

r 399. Death of Socrates, at the age of 70. 

394. Battle of Coronea, and Yictory of Agesilaus. — The 

Spartan fleet defeated by Conon. 



< 



I 387. Peace of Antalcidas. 



PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 65 

371. Battle of Leuctra. — The Spartans defeated by Epam- 
inondas. 

362. Battle of Man tinea. — Death of Epaminondas. 

359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon. 

352. First Philippic of Demosthenes. 

346. Philip overruns Phocis, and ends the Sacred War. 

338. Battle of Chaeronea. — The Athenians and Thebans 
defeated by Philip. 

336. Accession of Alexander the Great. 

334. Battle of the Granicus River. 

333. Battle of Issus. 

331. Battle of Arbela. 

323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. — The Lamian War. 

317-307. Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. 

301. Battle of Ipsus. 

281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus. 

280. Seleucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. — Invasion 
of Greece by the Gauls. 

279. The Gauls defeated at Delphi. 

243. Aratus general of the Achaean league. 
1 J 241. Agis (IV.), king of Sparta, put to death for attempting 
to reform the government. 

236. Cleomenes (III.) becomes king of Sparta. 

221. Sparta captured by Antigonus Doson. 

213. Aratus poisoned by Philip, king of Macedon. 

208. Philopcemen general of the Achaean league. 

197. Battle of Cynoscephalae. — Philip, king of Macedon, de- 
feated. 

183. Philopoemen put to death by the revolted Messenians. 

168. Battle of Pydna. — End of the Macedonian monarchy. 

146. Destruction of Corinth by Mummius. — Greece made a 
Roman province under the name of Achaia. 



EEVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE. 

1. What conquests were made by Cyrus the Great ? 31 

2. What were the principal events of the reign of Cambyses ? 31 

3. What important expeditions were undertaken by Darius Hystaspes ? 32 

4. What led to the invasion of Greece ? 32 

5. What Persian monarch invaded Greece, and with what result ? 32 

6. When and in what way did the Persian Empire end ? . . . 33 

7. What was the character of the Persians ? Their religion ? 33 

8. Give a brief sketch of the geography of Greece 33-34 

9. Who were the primitive inhabitants of Greece ? 34 



66 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 



10. What were the principal events of the legendary history ? 34-35 

11. What revolutions occurred in the twelfth century ? 35 

12. Give an account of Lycurgus 35-36 

13. Describe the Messenian Wars, and their consequences 36 

14. Describe the government of Sparta 36 

15. Give an account of the origin of Athens, and its early history 37 

16. Who were Draco and Solon ? 37 

17. Give an account of Pisistratus and his sons 37-38 

18. What is meant in Grecian history by the "Age of Despots ?" 38 

19. What was the ostracism, and why was it established ? 38-39 

20. Mention some of the distinguished men who were banished by it 42-48 

21. What led to the battle of Marathon ? Its consequences ? 39 

22. Give an account of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes 40 

23. Give a sketch of the career of Aristides 41-43 

24. Also of Themistocles 41-43 

25. Of Pausanias 41-42 

26. Of Cimon 43 

27. Give a full account of the Persian War 39-44 

28. Give a full account of the Peloponnesian War 44-45 

29. Give a sketch of the life and character of Socrates 46-47 

30. What led to the battle of Cunaxa ? 47 

31. Give an account of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand 47 

32. Describe the character of Agesilaus, and state the chief events of his life.. 48-49 

33. What rendered Epaminondas illustrious ? 48-49 

34. Describe the character of Philip of Macedon, and state the principal 

events of his reign 49-51 

35. Whaj; was the Sacred War? 50-51 

36. What victory gave Philip control of Greece ? 51 

37. Give a sketch of the career of Alexander the Great 51-56 

3S. What victory gave him the Persian empire ? 54 

39. After his death, what noted generals contended for the mastery ? 56-57 

40. What led to the battle of Ipsus ? Its consequences ? 57 

41. Who were Demetrius Phalereus and Demetrius Poliorcetes ? 57 

42. How was the Macedonian Empire divided after the battle of Ipsus ? 58 

43. Give a sketch of the career of Demetrius Poliorcetes 58 

44. Mention some of the successors of Ptolemy Ceraunus on the throne of 

Macedon 59 

45. Give an account of the formation of the iEtolian league 59 

46. Give a sketch of the history of the Achaean league 59 

47. Who was Philopoemen ? What was he styled ? 60 

48. How did the Macedonian monarchy end ? 61 

49. When and by whom was Greece subdued ? 61 

50. Give a sketch of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, Italy, Africa, &c 61 

51. What was the character of the Greeks ? 62 

52. What was the Amphictyonic Council ? 62 

53. Describe the public games 63 

54. In whose honor were they held ? What was their effect ? 63 

55. Mention the chief events of the fabulous age, with their dates.. 64 

56. Mention the chief events in the history of Greece, with their dates, 

during each succeeding century 64-65 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N?3. 



o Longit. / 



2 East from-l't London. 



46 



48 



ANCIENT 

I T ALY 




B. C. 753.] ROME. 67 



SECTION III. 

EOME, 
From its Foundation to the Establishment of the Empire. 

1. Kome is said to have been founded in 753 b. e., but its 
early history for at least three and a half centuries is only 
a series of traditional narratives of the details of which there 
is no authentic evidence. According to these, its founders 
were two brothers named Rom'u-lus and Re'mus, of the 
Latin race, a people that had long inhabited that part of 
Italy, occupying a district called La'ti-um. Eomulus be- 
came the first king, and was succeeded by six others, the 
united reigns of the whole comprising a period of about two 
centuries and a half. 

2. Besides the Latins and the Greek colonies, Italy, at 
the time of the foundation of Eome, was occupied by several 
other races, of whom the E-tru'ri-ans, living in what is now 
called Tuscany, were the most important and the most ad- 
vanced in civilization. Eomulus, it is said, arranged a plan 
of government for the new city, dividing the people into 
tribes, establishing a senate, and recognizing the two classes 
of Patricians, or nobles, and Plebeians, or common people. 

3. Nu'ma Pom-pil'ius, the second king, was, according 
to the traditions, the founder of the religious institutions 
of the Eomans. TuTlus Hos-til'i-us, the third king, was 

Map Questions. — (See Progressive Map, No. 3.)— Name the divisions of Italy. 
What was the situation of Latium ? Etruria ? Umbria ? Samnium ? Apulia ? 
Cala'bria? Brutium? Campania? Territory of the Sabines ? Cisalpine Gaul ? 
Where was Rhe'tia ? niy'ricum ? Helvetia ? What river tributary to the Adriatic 
Sea ? What branches of it are laid down ? On what river was Rome ? What port 
at its mouth ? Where was the Rubicon River ? The Metaurus River ? Lake Trasi- 
me'nus ? Where was Veii ? Tarquinii ? Tusculum ? Clusium ? Capua ? Cannse ? 
Brundusium ? What towns in Sicily ? In Africa ? 

1 . When and by whom was Rome founded ? Give the early history of Rome. 

2. By whom was Italy occupied at that time ? What were the acts of Romulus f 

3. Name the other kings of Rome. What is said of each? What ended the 
monarchy ? 



68 



KOME. 



[B. C. 509. 



noted for the wars waged by him against the neighboring 
cities. An'cus Mar' tins, the fourth king, gained victories 
over the Latins and some of the other races. Tar'quin the 
Elder, the fifth king, was noted for the public buildings and 
other works which he caused to be constructed ; among these 
were the Great Circus and the Great Sewer. Ser'vi-us Tul'~ 
li-us, the sixth king, established the census, which was taken 
every five years. Tar'quin the Proud, the seventh and last 
king, was by an insurrection of the people driven from the 
throne and city in consequence of an infamous crime com- 
mitted by his son. This ended the monarchy (509 b. a). 

4. Instead of kings, two yearly magistrates, called Con- 
suls, were then elected ; and Junius Brutus and Col-la-ti'- 
nus, through whose means the 
Tarquins had been expelled, were 
appointed to this office. The 
duties and powers of the consuls 
were similar to those of the kings, 
and for nearly 150 years they were 
chosen exclusively from the pa- 
tricians. As civil officers their 
power was nearly absolute, each 
ruling by turns ; and they were 
the legally appointed generals of 
the army in time of war. 

5. For more than twelve years after the abolition of the 
monarchy, the Eomans were engaged in war with the ad- 
herents and friends of the Tarquins. Several of the neigh- 
boring cities raised armies to compel the Eomans to rein- 
state their king, but they were all finally defeated, although 
at times they seemed to be on the point of achieving their 
object. The famous battle of Re-gil'lus, in Tus'cu-lum, ter- 




Pornptine 
'/Hirshes 



\ ICLXITY OF KOME. 



4. What officers took the place of the kings ? What were their powers and 
duties ? Who were the first consuls ? 

5. What wars followed the abolition of the monarchy ? Give some account of 
them. What is said of the battle of Lake Regillus ? What was the consequence 1 
What is said of the appointment of dictator ? (See also the note.) 



B. C. 494.] EOME. 09 

minated the struggle, and the Tarquins finally gave up all 
hope of restoration. To this period belong some of the most 
interesting stories of the legendary history.* It was during 
this period also that the first dictator^ was appointed. 

6. Although the monarchy was abolished, Rome was by 
no means under a free government. All political power 
was in the hands of the patricians, and the plebeians were 
kept in a condition of great social degradation. Obliged 
to borrow money of their rich neighbors, they were charged 
enormous rates of interest, and, when unable to pay, were 
delivered by the cruel laws to the mercy of their creditors, 
who entirely deprived them of their lands, and reduced 
them to the condition of serfs or slaves. Besides, they were 
compelled to perform military duty whenever called upon 
by the government. 

7. At length their condition became so wretched that 
they refused to take the 'field against the public enemy; 
but, leaving the city to the patricians, departed in a body 
to the Sacred Mount, about three miles distant. This 
compelled the nobles to make some concessions. They 
released the debtors from their obligations, setting free all 
who had been made slaves, and assented to the appoint- 
ment of two magistrates, called Trib'unes, who were to be 
chosen from the ranks of the Plebeians, to hold office one 
year, and to have the power of annulling any law of the 
Senate by pronouncing the word Veto, which means, I for- 
did it. The people then returned to the city (494 b. a). 

8. This concession on the part of the nobles was not so 
great as it appears, since the Tribunes were elected by 
those assemblies (called the Comitia of the Centuries) in 

* Such as the legend of Horatius, who kept the bridge against the whole Etrurian army; of 
Mucins- Scaevola, and of Castor and Pollux at Lake Regillus. (See Liddell's History of Rome, 
and Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Borne.) 

+ A dictator was an officer vested for a limited time with an absolute and irresponsible 
authority. He was only appointed in times of great public peril. 

6. What was the state of Rome at this time ? What was the condition of the 
.Plebeians ? 

7. What measure was taken by the Plebeians ? Give the result. 

8. How were the Tribunes elected ? What were their powers ? 



70 KOME. [B. €. 471. 

which, according to the constitution of Servius Tullius, the 
Patricians could always, by means of their wealth, com- 
mand a majority of votes. The Tribunes were not invested 
with any of the ordinary duties of magistrates, their office 
being simply to protect the rights of the Plebeians by their 
check upon the legislation of the Senate, which body was 
purely an aristocratic assemblage. The Tribunes were af- 
terward increased to five, and finally, in later times, to ten. 

9. Another source of difficulty was the injustice of the 
nobles in seizing upon the public or conquered lands, and 
keeping them for their exclusive use ; whereas, by the con- ' 
stitution of Servius Tullius, they were to be divided partly 
among the poorer people. This kind of aggression con- 
tinued to exist for centuries, and gave rise to the proposal 
of many exciting measures, called "Agrarian laws," the 
object of which was to enforce a proper division of these 
public lands. This was the more necessary ; since, when 
held in large quantities by the wealthy, they were, culti- 
vated by slaves, and the small farmers and freemen were 
deprived of the means of existence. 

10. A few years after the creation of the Tribunate (486 
b. a), Spit'ri-us Cas'si-us, one of the consuls, proposed the 
first agrarian law ; but he fell a victim to the machinations 
of the nobles, and, on a false accusation, was put to death. 
The law, although passed, was not put in execution, and 
the contest continued until the Plebeians gained a great 
triumph in the passage of the " Law of Vol'e-ro," according 
to which the Tribunes were elected bv the Plebeians them- 
selves at the Assembly of the Tribes, not at the Assembly 
of the Centuries (471 b. a). This law destroyed the power 
of the nobles, and made Eome a democratic state. 

11. While these struggles had been going on in the city 
between the two Orders, there were almost constant wars 

9. What were the Agrarian laws ? What was their origin ? Their object? 

1 0. Who proposed the first Agrarian law ? What was his fate ? What was the 
" Law of Volero ?" What was its effect ? 

11. Relate the legend about Coriolanus. 



B. C. 451.] EOME. 71 

with, the neighboring people, among whom the .^E'qui-ans 
and Volscians (called in Latin Volsci) were the most trouble- 
some. To this period belongs the story of Co-ri-o-la'nus, a 
patrician general, who acquired this name by the capture of 
Co-ri'o-M, an important city of the Volscians. Having great 
influence at Eome in consequence of the victories which he 
had gained, he insisted, during a time of famine, that no 
corn should be given to the people unless they would relin- 
quish their privileges. But the tribunes procured his banish- 
ment ; and going over to the Volscians, he marched with an 
army against Eome and threatened its capture. The Senate 
made several attempts to dissuade him from his revengeful 
purpose, but in vain. At last, when his mother, wife, and 
children were sent to his camp to intercede for the city, he 
relented, and retired with his army. Shortly afterward he 
was put to death by the Volscians (488 b. a). 

12. To a somewhat later period belongs the interesting 
legend of Cin-cin-na'tus, who, although a patrician, lived 
on a small farm which he cultivated with his own hands. 
Twice was he called from the plough to serve his country, 
once as Consul and again as Dictator; and while holding 
the latter office, he gained a great victory over the iEqui- 
ans ; and then, having freed Eome from danger, immediate- 
ly resigned his great office, and returned to his humble 
agricultural labors, followed by the applause and blessings 
of all his countrymen (458 b. a). Nearly thirty years 
afterward, when at the age of 80, he was again called from 
his retirement to take the office of dictator. 

13. The Eomans having no written laws, ten commis- 
sioners were appointed, called De-cem'-virs, to arrange a 
code. (451 b. c.) They were invested with a very large 
authority, superseding the other magistrates, and ruling by 
turns, each for one day. The celebrated code of the Twelve 



12. Eelate the legend about Cincinnatus. 

1 3. Who were the Decemvira ? What authority did they have ? What caused 
the abolition of the Decemvirate ? 



72 HOME. [B.C. 391. 

. 

Tables was the result of their labors ; but a flagrant abuse 
of power on the part of Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of their 
number, caused the abolition of the Decemvirate in the 
third year of its existence. 

14. The right of intermarriage between the patricians 
and plebeians being forbidden, a law was introduced by 
one of the tribunes (445 b. c.) making such marriages legal. 
This, after violent opposition, was passed, and was imme- 
diately followed by a proposal to open the consulship to the 
plebeians. To put an end to the strife and excitement 
which this produced, the duties of consuls were intrusted 
to officers called military tribunes, to be elected by the 
Assembly of the Centuries, both patricians and plebeians 
being eligible to the office. The Senate, however, could 
order the election of consuls, instead of the Tribunes, for 
any year. These officers continued to be elected with 
various intermissions until 367 b. c, when, by the Li-ciri- 
ian Laiv, plebeians were admitted to the consulship. 

15. The Eomans having besieged Veii (ve'yi), a powerful 
city of E-tru'ri-a, for several years, were on the point of 
suffering a disastrous defeat, when Fu'ri-us Cd-mil'lus, 
being appointed Dictator, caused a mine to be dug by 
means of which the soldiers were admitted into the citadel, 
and the city was taken and destroyed (396 b. a). Yeii 
was a larger and more magnificent city than Borne itself, 
and so favorably situated that very many of the Eomans 
were inclined to abandon their own city and migrate 
thither. From this, however, they were finally dissuaded 
by the patricians. Camillus being accused of appropriating 
the spoils of the conquered city to his own use, was driven 
into exile (391 b. a). 

16. At this period, the Gauls, a barbarous but very bold 

14. What privilege did the plebeians acquire? What were the military tri- 
bunes ? What privileges did the Licinian law give to the pleheians ? 

15. What was accomplished by Camillus ? How did Veii compare with Rome ? 
What danger threatened Rome.? Why was Camillus banished ? 

1 6. What city was attacked by the Gauls ? How did the Romans become in 
volved ? 



B. C. 390.] ROME. 73 

and warlike people, had possessed themselves of nearly all 
Western Europe, and occupied also the north of Italy. 
Proceeding farther south, they (391 b. c.) attacked Clu'-si- 
um, an important city of Etruria, the inhabitants of which 
sent to Eome for assistance. Embassadors were according- 
ly sent to Olusium to demand of the Gauls the reason of 
their hostile invasion, and bid them quit a territory to 
which they had no claim. Bren'nus, their leader, answered 
that the " title of brave men was their swords f whereupon 
a battle ensued, in which the Eoman deputies, unmindful 
of their neutral character, took part against the Gauls. 

17. The course taken by the deputies so enraged Brennus 
that he immediately left Olusium, and with an army of 
nearly 75,000 men marched toward Eome. On the banks 
of the Al'li-a, a few miles from the city, he met and de- 
feated the Eoman army; and then marching to the city 
itself, entered it without opposition, the inhabitants having 
all fled, except 80 aged senators, who awaited the enemy in 
the Forum, in their robes of state and seated in their ivory 
chairs. These venerable men were quickly massacred, and 
the city pillaged and burnt (390 b. a). 

18. The citadel, however, being built on a steep and lofty 
cliff, held out for seven months ; and the Gauls besieging it 
were reduced in numbers by a pestilence which broke out 
among them. It is said that at one time they were on the 
point of taking the citadel ; for having discovered a narrow 
path up the cliff, they had nearly reached the summit dur- 
ing the.darkness of night, all the guards being asleep ; but 
at that instant the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno 
commenced a loud cackling, which awoke the garrison ; 
and the Eoman commander, Mar'cus Man'li-us, springing 
up, rushed to the edge of the rock and hurled the Gauls 
headlong down. 

1 7. What defeat was sustained by the Romans ? What followed the battle of 
AUia ? 

18. How was the citadel defended ? Relate what is said to have occurred dur- 
ing the defence. 

4 



74 EOME. FB. C. 383. 

19. In the mean while, Camillus had been called from 
banishment and made dictator. He arrived, as the story 
goes, with an army just as the Eomans were about to 
deliver to the Gauls 1000 pounds of gold which they had 
agreed to pay as a ransom. Exclaiming that " Eome should 
be ransomed only with steel," he ordered the gold to be 
carried away, and immediately attacking the Gauls, de- 
feated them with great slaughter. Other, and probably 
more truthful, accounts state that the gold was paid, and 
that the Gauls peaceably retired ; and it is eyen said that, 
more than four centuries afterward, some of this yery gold 
was recovered from the Gauls of that later period. It is, 
however, certain that the city was left in ruins; and the 
public records haying been destroyed, no materials for an 
authentic history of the events preceding this period could 
afterward be obtained. 

20. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a 
sad condition, and the people were almost in despair. 
They had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, 
and yet were obliged to pay taxes in order to repair the 
city walls and to carry on the wars which the neighboring 
states waged against them. They were also very much 
oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this 
crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, 
distinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve 
the people's wants. Having by this means acquired very 
great popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, 
and was accused of attempting to make himself king ; of 
which offence being unjustly pronounced guilty, he was 
thrown down the very rock* from which he had repelled 
his country's enemies (383 b. a). 

21. During the next twenty years, frequent wars were 

* Called the Tarpeian Rock. 



19. Who defeated the Gauls? What is said of the ransom? How far is tho 
account certain as regards the city and public records ? 

20. What was the fate of Manlius ? Relate the events that led to his death. 

21 . What wars were waged during the next twenty years ? What is stated of 
subsequent wars ? Of the alliance between Rome and the Latin cities ? 



B.C. 295.] ROME. 75 

waged with the Volscians, ^Equians, and Etrurians, in 
which Camillus gained great distinction, and was five times 
made dictator and hailed repeatedly as the Savior of Rome. 
In 361 b. c, the Gauls made another invasion, and ten 
years afterward a third, but each time were repulsed. A 
war of several years was also waged with the powerful 
Etrurian city Tar-quin'i-i, but it was finally brought to a 
successful issue, a peace of forty years being concluded. 
The Romans at this time had also formed an aMiance with 
most of the Latin cities, which added greatly to their 
strength and safety. 

22. Samnite War. — The Sam/nites, a warlike people 
inhabiting central Italy, having made war upon the Cam- 
pa'nians, the latter called in the aid of the Romans (343 b. 
a), who entering Campania defeated the Samnites with im- 
mense slaughter, and compelled them to make peace, after 
the war had lasted about two years. A war with the Latin 
cities followed, in which the Romans were also victorious, 
and Latium was annexed to the Roman territory (339 B. a). 

23. In a second war with the Samnites, the Romans sus- 
tained a terrible defeat in a narrow valley called the Can- 
dine Forks, and were compelled by the Samnite general to 
pass under the yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjuga- 
tion (321 b. a). The war was, however, continued until 
305 b. c, when the Samnites, having been repeatedly de- 
feated, were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of 
Rome. Seven years afterward they renewed the war, being 
aided by the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the 
allied army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a town 
in Um'bria (295 B. a). This famous victory gave the 
Romans the dominion of nearly all Italy. Close upon 
this event, followed a war with the Etrurians and Gauls, 



* The yoke was made by setting two spears upright, and placing another across the top of them 

22. What caused the Samnite war ? What country was annexed in 340 b. c. ? 

23. What caused the second Samnite war ? Where were the " Caudine Forks ?" 
Am. In Samnium. When were the Romans defeated ? How did the war end? 
Describe the third Samnite war. What was the effect of the battle of Sentinum ? 
What other war followed ? 



76 EOME. [B. C. 274. 

whose combined forces were also vanquished with great 
slaughter. 

24. The inhabitants of the Greek colony Ta-ren'-tum 
haying given offence to the Eonians, the latter declared war 
upon them, upon which the Tarentines solicited the aid of 
Pyr'rJius, King of Epi'rus, the greatest general of his age. 
Complying with this request, he landed in Italy and gained 
a great victory over the Eomans, commanded by the Con- 
sul Lce-vi'nus (280 B. a). But it was a dear-bought 
triumph, for he lost many of his best troops and some of . 
his ablest officers, and was probably indebted for it more to 
the confusion occasioned by the elephants which his army 
contained, and to which the Eomans were not accustomed, 
than to the superior valor or skill of his soldiers. When, 
on visiting the battle-field the next day, he gazed on the 
Eoman dead, all of whom appeared to have fallen in their 
ranks, and with their faces turned toward the enemy, he 
exclaimed : " If I had such soldiers as these, how easily 
could I conquer the world !" 

25. Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and 
he advanced within eighteen miles from Eome, to which he 
sent an emissary, offering peace ; but this the Eoman senate 
refused until he should withdraw his forces from Italy. 
Another battle was fought the next year, in which the Eo- 
mans were again defeated, but with great loss to Pyrrhus. 
Leaving Italy, he then proceeded to Sicily with the design 
of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, but in this 
he was not successful ; and after an absence of two years 
he returned to Ta-ren'tum. At Ben-e-ven'tum* he was met 
by the Eomans under the Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, 
and suffered a most disastrous defeat (275 b. a), after which 
he retired forever from Italy. Eeturning to Greece, he was 

* A town of Samnium, about 28 miles from Capua. (See Progressive Map, No. 3.) 



24. What led to the invasion by Pyrrhus ? What success did he meet with ? 
What did he say of the Eoman soldiers ? 

25. What were the further proceedings of Pyrrhus ? Where was he defeated? 
Where was he killed ? 



B. C. 266.] HOME. 77 

proclaimed King of Macedonia, and making war upon the 
Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but in an attack npon 
Argos, he was killed by a tile thrown by a woman from the 
roof of a house (272 b. a). 

26. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines ap- 
plied for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for 
their relief; but the Eomans obtained possession of Ta- 
rentum. The Samnites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon 
afterward submitted, thus leaving Eome mistress of all Italy 
(266 B. a). Over this extensive domain she organized a 
most effective government. Some portions, which were 
called Prefectures, that is, districts governed by Prefects, 
she ruled by means of magistrates sent from herself. Prom 
others, the Municipal Toivns, she only exacted military 
service, leaving to them the control of their own local af- 
fairs ; while in very many she planted colonies of Eoman 
citizens, whom she supplied with lands from the conquered 
territory, and placed over the subjugated inhabitants. Her 
rule was, however, mild and generally just, and was but 
little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 

27. The Punic Wars. — Across the Mediterranean, on 
the African shore, was the great rival republic, Carthage ; 
and with her the Romans were now to measure their 
strength.* This city, settled, as it has been stated, by the 
Tyrians, had been in existence about six centuries, and had 
grown, by means of her commerce, to be one of the wealth- 
iest cities in the world. Her ships covered the Mediterra- 
nean, and her fleets were unequalled for numbers and 
efficiency. Three hundred cities in Africa paid her tribute, 
she had made conquests in Spain, and nearly all Sicily had 
submitted to her sway. 

* The wars waged with Carthage were called Punic Warn, Punic being a corruption of Phcenix, 
meaning Phcmician, since Carthage was of Phoenician origin. 



26. When and how did Eome become mistress of Italy? What is said of the 
government which she established? What were the prefectures ? Municipal 
towns ? Colonies ? 

2 7. What was the condition of Carthage at the commencement of the Punic wars ? 



78 ROME. [B. C 264 

28. Syracuse, however, still retained its independence, 
after repeated wars with the Carthaginians. This city was 
a colony of the Corinthians, established in the eighth cen- 
tury b. c; and, in the fifth century, became the most 
populous and powerful state in the island, under a virtuous 
and patriotic sovereign, named Ge'lon. During its struggle 
with Athens, in which Mcias was so disastrously defeated, 
it was under a free government, but subsequently lost its 
liberties (405 b. a), being ruled for 38 years by the famous 
Di-o-nys'-i-us, who carried on a successful war with the 
Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a Corinthian of great virtue 
and talents, restored it to freedom (344 b. c.) ; but under 
A-gath'o-cles, the despotism was again established (317 
B. a). At the time to which we have arrived, it was 
under the rule of a monarch named Hi'e-ro, during whose 
reign flourished the famous mathematician Archimedes 
(ar-fce-me'deez). 

29. First Punic War. — This war commenced in 264 
B. c. and lasted 23 years. It was brought on in the following 
manner. Agathocles, who waged long wars with Carthage, 
had hired a body of troops from Cam-pa'ni-a; and these, 
after the death of that despot, seized Messana and slaugh- 
tered the inhabitants, after which they assumed the name of 
Mam 'er '-tines, which means warlike men. These Hiero, 
king of Syracuse, marched against and defeated; where- 
upon they divided, and while a portion of them invoked 
the aid of the Eomans, the others applied to the Carthagin- 
ians. Thus, by a set of mercenary murderers and robbers, 
were these two great republics plunged into a series of wars 
which lasted more than a hundred years. The real cause 
of the war was, however, the rivalship of these states. 

30. The Eomans having gained some important victo- 
ries, were soon joined by many of the states of Sicily, 

28. Give a sketch, of the history of Syracuse. 

29. What led to the first Punic war? What was the real cause of the war ? 

30. What victories did the Romans gain? What general was defeated, and 
how? 



B.C. 218.] EOME. 79 

including Syracuse. They then took Ag-ri-gen'tum, dc\ 
feating an immense army which the Carthaginians had 
sent to its assistance (262 b. a). Seeing then the necessity 
of coping with their enemy on the sea, they built a fleet, 
and under the Consul Du-iUi-us, gained two great naval 
victories. Thus encouraged, they sent an armament under 
Beg'u-lus to attack Carthage itself; but this expedition, 
although at first successful, was defeated with great loss 
through the assistance of Xan-thip'pus, a Spartan general, 
who had recently entered the service of Carthage. The 
greater part of the Romans were slain or made prisoners, 
Regulus himself being among the latter (255 b. a). 

31. But subsequent misfortunes discouraged the Cartha- 
ginians ; and they took Eegulus from prison, and sent him 
to Eome, with the understanding that he should obtain 
favorable terms of. peace, or return to Carthage (250 b. a). 
He listened to the dictates of patriotism instead of con- 
sulting his own personal safety, and advised his country- 
men to continue the war, assuring them that Carthage 
was nearly exhausted. Having, in accordance with the 
pledge which he had given, returned to Carthage, he was, 
it is said, put to death with the most dreadful tortures. 
The war having continued some years longer, the Car- 
thaginians sued for peace, which was granted on condition 
that they should evacuate the island of Sicily, restore the 
Roman prisoners, and pay all the expenses of the war 
(241 b. c). Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse, then 
became a Roman province. 

32. Second Punic War.— This war commenced in 218 
b. c, and lasted seventeen years. Han'ni-bal, the son of 
Iia-imTcar, a noted general in the first Punic war, had 
when a youth been made by his father~to swear upon the 
altar eternal enmitv to the Romans ; and the Carthagin- 



31. What is farther said of Regulus ? How did the war end ? What became 
of Sicily ? . . . . . 

32. How and when did the second Punic war begin ? 



80 EOME. [B.C. 215, 

ians haying made considerable conquests in Spain, Han- 
nibal laid siege to Sa-gun'tum, a Greek colony near the 
eastern coast then in alliance with Rome. The expostula- 
tions of the last-named power being treated with contempt 
by Hannibal, and his conduct having been approved by Car- 
thage, preparations for war were immediately commenced. 

33. Hannibal, haying completed the conquest of Spain, 
crossed the Pyrenees and Alps, and at the river Ti-ci'nus 
met and defeated the Romans under their consul Scip'i-o 
(218 b. a). A few days afterward, he inflicted a severe 
defeat upon the other consul, Sem-pro'ni-us, near the ' 
river Tre'bi-a, a short distance from the scene of the first 
conflict. Another great battle was fought the next year, 
near the lake Tras-i-me'nus ; when the Romans were 
again defeated, their army being almost destroyed (217 
b. a). So alarmed did the Romans become, in consequence, 
that they immediately appointed a dictator, Fa'M-us 
Max'i-mus being selected for the office. 

34. This general adopted the tactics of harassing the 
invaders as much as possible, but avoiding a direct engage- 
ment, thus wearing out their resources by delay. The 
Romans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from their 
disasters ; but the next year (216 b. a), Hannibal having 
advanced into Southern Italy, was opposed by a large army 
under the consuls JE-mil'i-us and Varro ; and at Cam! nee 
a terrific battle took place, which for the fourth time re- 
sulted in a complete victory for the Carthaginians (216 
b. a). It is said that more than 50,000 Romans fell on 
the field, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels 
of gold rings, taken from the fingers of senators and 
knights who were found among the slain. Almost all the 
nations in the south of Italy at once revolted from the 



3 3 What course did Hannibal take ? What victories did he gain ? To what 
position wsts'Fabius Maximus elected ? 

3-4. What was the policy of Fabius ? Describe the battle of Cannse. (Where 
was Cannae ? See Map, No. 3.) What revolt ensued ? Where did Hannibal pasa 
the winter ? 



B. C. 212.] KOME. 81 

Eomans ; but Hannibal, instead of marching on the city, 
which it is thought he might have captured, went into win- 
ter-quarters at Cap'u-a, and waited for re-enforcements. 

35. In the meanwhile, the Romans had sent the two 
Scipios into Spain, who, after haying gained great advan- 
tages over the Carthaginians, were defeated in battle and 
slain. They were succeeded by Pub'lius Corne'lius Scipio, 
son of one of the former commanders, who, having defeated 
the Carthaginians in several important battles, completed 
the conquest of Spain (205 b. a). Hannibal gained no im- 
portant victory after that at Cannae. His army, reduced in 
numbers, and impaired in strength and discipline by the 
pleasures and vices of Capua, was scarcely adequate to 
protect his Italian allies against the Eomans, now under 
the command of Fa'bius and Mar-ceTlus, the former of 
whom, from his cautious policy, was called the Shield, and 
the latter, on account of his vigor and address, the Sword 
of Eome. Marcellus did important service in Sicily. 

36. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having died, the Syracusans 
established a popular government, and declared against 
Eome. Marcellus therefore proceeded against the city, which 
he took after a siege of two years (212 b. a). This siege is 
memorable for the part taken in the defence of the city by 
Archimedes, who exhausted his science and skill in the 
invention of machines to assail the besiegers. In the 
general massacre that followed the entrance of the Eomans, 
the aged philosopher was slain ; the city was pillaged, and 
many of its magnificent works of art were carried to Eome. 

37. Hannibal, despairing of succor from Carthage, at* 
length summoned his brother As'dru-bal from Spain, who 
soon passed into Italy, but was intercepted by a Eoman 



35. What had the Eomans done in the mean while ? Who completed the con- 
quest of Spain ? What was the condition of Hannibal's army ? What generals were 
called the Shield and Sword of Eome ? Why ? 

36. What service did Marcellus perform in Sicily? What is said of Ar- 
chil redes ? 

37. What measure did Hannibal adopt to obtain aid ? Why did he not get the 
aid ? Whither did the Eomans now direct the war ? 



82 KOME. [B. C. 202. 

army, at the Me-tau'rus River, in Umbria ; and, in the bat- 
tle that ensued, he was defeated and slain (207 b. a). Han- 
nibal received notice of this disaster by the sight of his 
brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown 
into his camp. The Eomans, under the influence of Scipio, 
the conqueror of Spain, resolved now to " carry the war 
into Africa," and Scipio was appointed to the command. 

38. Having defeated the Numid'ians in a great battle, 
and vanquished the Carthaginians with immense slaugh- 
ter, at U'li-ca, Scipio marched almost to the gates of 
their city ; , when the Carthaginian senate, driven to 
despair, recalled Hannibal to the defence of his own coun- 
try. The call was at once obeyed, and landing in Africa, 
Hannibal drew up his forces on the plain of Za'ma, a town 
in Numidia. Seeing that his army was far inferior to that 
of the Eomans, he obtained an interview with Scipio, and 
proposed a treaty of peace; but. Scipio, true to Roman 
policy, declined the proposal. The battle therefore took 
place, and Hannibal was defeated with great loss (202 B. a). 

39. The battle of Zama ended the second Punic war ; for 
although the Carthaginians were not utterly exhausted, 
yet, by the prudent counsel of Hannibal, who saw that it 
would be useless to protract the struggle, they consented to 
accept the terms of peace dictated by Scipio, and approved 
by the Roman Senate. These were very severe : Carthage 
was to evacuate Spain, to give up all her prisoners, surren- 
der her fleets, pay 10,000 talents to defray the expenses of 
the war, and agree to undertake no future war without 
the consent of Rome. The treaty having been concluded, 
Scipio returned home, and was honored with a more splen- 
did triumph than any Roman general had previously re- 
ceived. He was called thereafter Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus. 

40. Hannibal was for a time treated with great respect 

38. What did Scipio accomplish? Where did he defeat Hannibal ? What waa 
the result ? 

39. On what terras was peace made ? How was Scipio rewarded ? 

40. Relate the subsequent history of Hannibal. 



B. C. 189.] ROME. 83 

« 

by tlie Carthaginians, and, being placed at the head of the 
government, endeavored to restore the nation to its former 
prosperity and splendor. But the intrigues of the ancient 
nobility prevailed against him, and he was compelled to 
flee in order to save his life (196 b. a). Taking refuge in 
Syria, at the court of An-ti 'o-chus the Great, he assisted 
that monarch in a war against the Eomans ; but the latter 
prevailing, demanded that he should be given up to them, 
whereupon he fled to Bi-thyn' -i-a, and there, being still pur- 
sued by the Eoman emissaries, he was at last compelled to 
put an end to his life to avoid falling into their hands 
(183 b. a). 

41. In the same year died his great rival, Scipio Afri- 
canus, an exile too from his native country. For, having 
served with his brother Lucius Scipio in the war against 
Antiochus, and defeated that monarch at the battle of 
Mag-ne' sia, he and his brother were accused of embezzling 
some of the captured treasures. To this base and ungrate- 
ful accusation he disdained to plead ; but, quitting Some 
in disgust, took up his abode in Campania, where he died. 
Lucius Scipio, refusing to pay the fine imposed upon him, 
had all his property confiscated. This general, after the 
victory at Magnesia, was called Scipio Asiaticus. 

42. The second Punic war was followed by a war against 
Philip, king of Macedonia, who was defeated in the battle 
of Cyn-o-ceph' a-le. The iEtolians having invited Antiochus 
into Greece, that monarch crossed over and took Euboea. 
This was considered an act of interference by the Eomans, 
and war was declared against Syria, which was ended by the 
battle of Magnesia, in Lydia (190 b. a), after which Anti- 
ochus was obliged to surrender nearly the whole of Asia 
Minor to At'ta-lus, king of Per'ga-mus, who had been in 
alliance with the Eomans during the war. Antiochus was 

41. Relate the subsequent history of Scipio Africanus. Who was called Scipio 
Asiaticus ? Why ? Where was Magnesia ? (See Map, page 41.) 

42. What battle terminated the war against Philip ? Against Antiochus ? What 
was Antiochus compelled to do ? Who was Antiochus ? 



84 KOME. [B. C. 146. 

the most powerful and enterprising of the successors of 
Seleucus, called the Se-leu' ci-dce ; and previous to this de- 
feat had waged successful war against the Parthian s, Bac- 
trians, and other nations in the East. 

43. The monarchy of Syria at this time extended as far 
east as the Euphrates, and was bounded on the north by 
the Taurus Mountains, and on the south by Arabia. Asia 
Minor, now severed entirely from the dominions of Anti- 
ochus, contained, besides the kingdom of Pergamus, the 
independent monarchies of Bithyn'ia, Cap-pa-do' cia, and 
Pon'tus, besides Ga-la'tia, the country occupied by the 
Gauls. These states, fragments of the Macedonian Empire, 
will be referred to in the course of the following history. 

44. Pergamus was founded by a lieutenant of Lysim- 
achus (283 B. a), but did not acquire any prominence 
until the reign of A italics, who distinguished himself by 
his alliance with the Eomans in the war against Antiochus. 
This kingdom lasted 150 years, at the end of which its 
last king, Attains III., left it, with all its treasures, to the 
Eomans (133 b. a). The kings of Pergamus were noted 
for their attention to literature; and they collected an^ 
immense library, which was afterward carried to Alex- 
andria. 

45. After the death of Philip, king of Macedonia, Per- 
seus, his successor, made an effort to free Greece and Mace- 
don from the Roman yoke, but, after a war of three years, 
was utterly subdued at the battle of Pyd'na (168 b. a). 
He was carried captive to Rome, where he and his wife and 
children graced the triumph of JE-mil'i-us Pau'lus, his 
conqueror. Thus was Macedonia added to the Roman 
dominions, which a few years afterward were still further 
augmented by the conquest of Greece (146 b. a). 

43. What constituted Syria at this time ? What did Asia Minor contain ? 

44. Sketch the history of Pergamus. For what were its kings noted ? Where 
was Pergamus. — Ans. In Mysia, Asia Minor. (See Map, page 41.) 

45. What led to the war with Perseus ? Where was he defeated? What waa 
the result ? What other conquest was made in 146 b. c. ? 



B. C. 146.] HOME. 85 

46. Third Punic War. — In the mean time the third 
Punic war broke out, caused by the inveterate hatred of the 
Eomans toward the Carthaginians. A pretext for the war 
was found in the efforts made by Carthage to repel the 
aggressions of Mas-i-nis'sa, king of Nu-mid'i-a,* whom the 
Eomans acknowledged as their ally. Every effort was made 
by the Carthaginians to appease the hostility of their ene- 
mies. They complied with every demand ; banishing all who 
had given offence to the Eomans, and even surrendering 
their arms and military stores. But when finally told that 
they must leave Carthage, and permit it to be destroyed, 
they took courage from despair, shut the gates of the city, 
and put to death every Eoman within its walls. 

47. The most vigorous exertions were then made to supply 
the place of the weapons which the treachery of Eome had 
wrested from them. Men of every rank toiled day and night 
in the forges, and the women cut off their hair to furnish 
bow-strings for the archers. For three years did they, un- 
der their general As'dru-bal, keep the Eomans at bay ; but 
at length were obliged to yield to the skill and perseverance 
of Scipio Africanus the Younger, under whom the Eomans 
scaled the walls of the city, and cut their way to the cita- 
del. After six days of continuous slaughter, the miserable 
inhabitants were subdued; and the city having been set on 
fire, very many perished in the flames. By a subsequent 
order of the Eoman Senate, every house that was left 
standing was thrown down, and the city completely de- 
stroyed (146 b. a). 

48. Thus perished this magnificent city, after it had ex- 
isted seven centuries. Utica, which had submitted to the 
Eomans, was rewarded with a portion of the Carthaginian 

* A country on the northern coast of Africa, to the west of Carthage. 



46. What caused the third Punic war ? What course was pursued hy the Car- 
thaginians ? • 

4T. Give an account of the siege and capture of Carthage. What was the fata 
of the city? 

48. What ia said of its territory and subsequent history ? 



86 ROME. [B. C. 133. 

territory ; but the principal part was formed into a province 
under the name of Lih'ya. Under the Emperor Augustus 
Carthage was rebuilt, and became, in the second century of 
the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Roman 
empire. It was again destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh, 
century (698 A. D.), and now only a few ruins remain to 
mark its site. 

49. Spanish War. — Although the Carthaginians had 
been expelled from Spain, the inhabitants were not sub- 
dued ; and they valiantly defended their liberties for a long 
series of years against the Romans. Among the most cou- 
rageous and warlike tribes were the Cel-ti-be' ri-ans and Lu- 
si-ta'ni-ans.* The latter found, in their noble and patriotic 
chief Vir-i-a'tus, a leader worthy of their bravery, and able 
to cope with the best generals of Rome. For six years he 
defied every effort for his defeat and capture; and the 
Lusitanians were only subdued when the Romans by treach- 
ery procured his assassination (140 b. a). The taking of 
Nu-man'tia\ by Scipio completed the subjugation of Spain 
(133 b. a). 

50. The Gracchi. — The great conquests made by the 
Romans had served rather to enrich the nobles than to ben- 
efit the middle or poorer classes of the citizens ; and had 
corrupted the government by giving undue power to the 
Senate. The agrarian laws, which in earlier times had 
been passed to protect the people against the greed of the 
aristocracy, were generally unobserved; and the city, as 
well as all Italy, was swarming with slaves, who left no 
occupation to the citizens except that of war. At this time 
a champion of the people arose, in the person of a young 
noble, named Ti-le'ri-us Grac'chus, who, being elected 

* Lusitania corresponded very nearly with modern Portugal ; Celtiberia, with Aragon, in the 
northeastern part of Spain, 
t Nainantia was in the northern part of Spain. 



49. What war was waged in Spain ? Who was Viriatus ? What ended tha 
Spanish war ? 

50. How was Rome affected by her conquests ? Who was Tiberius Gracchus ? 



B. C. 121.] ROME. 8? 

tribune, and noticing with grief and indignation the op- 
pressions of the rich and the sufferings of the poor, deter- 
mined to remoye them, by reviving the Licin'ian law, 
which had fallen into neglect. 

51. This law provided that the public lands should be 
for the benefit of all classes, and that no one should occupy 
more than 330 acres ; but the nobles had seized them, and 
converted them to their own use. These lands Gracchus 
proposed to divide according to law, but to pay the owners 
for the buildings which they had erected upon them. He 
also proposed that the treasures left to Eome by Attalus, 
king of Pergamus, should be laid out in implements and 
cattle for the poor occupants of these lands. 

52. These propositions raised a great storm of indigna- 
tion among the senators and other members of the aristoc- 
racy; and while an election for tribunes was going on, 
they rushed into the assembly to prevent the re-election of 
Gracchus ; and in the tumult he, with 300 others, was slain 
(133 b. a). Ten years afterward, his brother, Ca'i-us Grac'-. 
chus, distinguished for his oratory, made another attempt 
to vindicate the rights of the people, and check the en- 
croachments of the Senate. But he, too, fell a victim to 
their violence ; being slain, with 3000 of his followers, by 
the orders of the consul, whom the Senate had invested 
with the authority of a dictator (121 b. a). 

53. The Gracchi* have been unjustly represented as 
seditious demagogues. They were, on the contrary, vir- 
tuous and patriotic reformers ; and,had the measures which « 
they proposed been adopted, the subsequent history of 
Rome would have been very different. Henceforth we see 
the supreme power in the hands of a corrupt and insolent 
aristocracy, and the state a constant prey to civil dissen- 

* GraccJii is the Latin plural of Gracchus, and means the two persons of that name. 



5 1 . How did he propose to rectify abuses ? What was the Licinian law ? 

52. What course did the nobles take? What became of Tiberius Gracchus? 
Who succeeded him iu the enterprise ? What was the result ? 

53. What is said of the Gracchi and their measures ? 



88 ROME. [B. C. 106. 

tion and war; while the people are merely the instruments, 
wielded by one or the other military chieftain, to satisfy his 
ambitions designs. Conscription and massacre, as either 
party prevails, thin the ranks of the proud nobles, and 
thus avenge the wrongs, while they vindicate the wisdom 
and patriotism, of the two Gracchi. 

54. War against Jugurtha.— The disgraceful corrup- 
tion of the Senate was shown in the war against Ju-gur'- 
tha, who, having murdered his two cousins, sons of 
Mi-cip'sa, a faithful ally of Eome, usurped the throne of 
Numidia. These iniquities he was enabled to perpetrate, 
in spite of repeated complaints made to the Eoman senate, 
by bribing its members; and he openly boasted of the 
power of his gold. At last, when the people would endure 
the outrage no longer, war was declared against the wicked 
usurper (111 B. c.) ; but Jugurtha bribed the generals, and 
thus prevented its success. 

55. This being discovered and punished, the conduct of 
the war was committed to Me-tel'lus, who had almost com- 
pleted the subjugation of Numidia, when he was super- 
seded in the command by his lieutenant, Caius Mar'i-us. 
This man, afterward so famous in the history of Kome, 
had just risen to notice at the age of 50, having been long 
kept in obscurity by his poverty and mean birth. He 
soon brought the war to a conclusion, and sent Jugurtha 
a captive to Eome, where he was starved to death in a 
dungeon (106 B. a). 

• 56. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. — In 
the mean time, hordes of barbarians, called the Cim'bri-ans 
and Teit'tons, invaded Gaul, and threatened Italy. After 
four Eoman armies had been successively defeated by them, 
the command was given to Marius, who attacked the Teu- 

54. Who was Jugurtha, and what led to a war with him? To whom was its 
management committed ? With what result ? 

55. What was done hy Metellus and Marius ? What is said of the latter ? 

56. What invasion of Italy took place? By whom were the harharians de- 
feated ? What was Marius called ? 



B. C. 63.] KOME. 89 

tons near the Ehone Kiver, and gained so decided a victory 
over them, that they were almost annihilated (102 B. a). 
The next year, having been appointed consul for the fifth 
time, he marched against the Cimbrians, whom he also 
defeated with immense slaughter, in Cis-al'pine Gaul.* By 
these two great victories, the tide of barbarian inundation 
was turned back for centuries, and Marius was deservedly 
hailed as the Savior of his Country. 

57. Social War. — A dreadful war broke out soon after- 
ward (90 B. c.) between Eome and the Italian states, called 
the Social War. This was caused by the demand of the 
states for the rights of citizenship, which the Senate re- 
fused. After nearly two years of war, and the destruc- 
tion of about 300,000 Italians, the franchise was granted 
to all such as laid down their arms ; and tranquillity was 
restored. 

58. Mithridatic War.— Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pon- 
tus, having made extensive conquests in Asia Minor, 
formed the design of entirely expelling the Komans from 
that country; and by his orders 80,000 Italians, in the 
different cities, were massacred in one night (88 b. a). 
SyTla, a distinguished Eoman general, being sent against 
him, defeated him in several battles, and compelled him 
to sue for peace (84 b. a). . 

59. The war was afterward renewed (74 B. a), but was 
brought to a successful conclusion by Pompey the Great ; 
and Mithridates, in despair, put an end to his life (63 b. a). 
This monarch was noted for his talents and accomplish- 
ments, being, it is said, able to converse in all the different 
languages of his extensive dominions. He was considered 
the most powerful opponent Kome had ever known, having, 
during his long reign of fifty-seven years, been engaged 
nearly twenty-five of them in war with that republic. 

* Cisalpine means on this side of the Alps ; that is, on the side towards Rome. 



57. What is meant by the Social War ? What was its cause ? How did it end! 

58. What caused the Mithridatic War ? Who defeated Mithridates ? 

59. Who again defeated him ? What is said of Mithridates ? 



90 ROME. [B. C. 83. 

60. Civil War of Marius and Sylla. — Marius, and 
Sylla, his lieutenant in the war with Jugurtha, eagerly 
contended for the chief command in the Mithridat'ic War ; 
but Sylla prevailed, and compelled his rival to flee from 
Konie in order to save his life. After the departure of 
Sylla to his command, the consul Cin'na recalled the aged 
Marius, who, returning to Italy, defeated the partisans of 
his rival, and entering Eome in triumph, caused those who 
had opposed his cause to be put to death (87 b. a). He 
then declared himself consul, but a short time afterward 
died, at the age of 71. 

61. Marius was one of the most remarkable characters 
to be found in history. By his great abilities he rescued 
his country from a danger that threatened its destruction ; 
but his insatiable desire for power and distinction plunged 
it into the miseries of a civil war. Though six times made 
consul, and crowned with every honor his countrymen could 
confer, yet, at the advanced age of 70, in order to acquire 
office he ceased to be a patriot, and became a partisan ; and 
when triumphant, glutted his rage against such of his 
fellow-citizens as had opposed him, with the most remorse- 
less cruelty. At length, exhausted by intemperance and 
debauchery, he sank into the grave, " hated by his enemies, 
feared even by his friends." 

62. Sylla, returning from Asia, entered Italy with a 
large army (83 B. c.) ; but the leaders of the Marian party 
had made great preparations to oppose him. A dreadful 
war of two years ensued, during which the Samnites took 
up arms against Sylla. He was, however, triumphant over 
all his enemies, and after gaining several great victories, 
entered Rome its undisputed master. His first act was to 
massacre 6,000 Samnite prisoners ; and then commenced a 

60. What caused a civil war at this time ? Give an account of it. What be- 
came of Marius ? 

6 1 . What is said of his character ? 

62. What took place on Sylla's return to Italy ? On his entrance into Eome ? 
What became of Sylla ? 



B.C. 71.] ROME. 91 

fearful slaughter of all whom he deemed his enemies. 
Eyery day he issued a new list of those who were to be 
put to death; and after this dreadful proscription, in 
which it is said 8,000 citizens perished, he declared him- 
self Perpetual Dictator. Having effected some reforms in 
the goyernment, he resigned, to the surprise of all, the 
office of dictator, which he had filled about two years, 
and retired to private life (79 B. a). A short time after- 
ward, he died of a loathsome disease, occasioned by intem- 
perance and debauchery. 

63. In this war, Marius had been opposed by the patri- 
cians ; while the Senate and its partisans had been on the 
side of Sylla. The party of Marius was thus sustained by 
the people, but that of Sylla by the aristocracy. The 
death of these two great chiefs did not end the strife. 
Ser-to'ri-us, one of the most distinguished of the Marian 
leaders, had taken refuge in Spain, and there established a 
power which for more than ten years defied all the efforts 
of the Senate. Pompey was sent against him ; but it was 
only after the assassination of Sertorius that the insur- 
gents could be* subdued (72 b. a). 

64. Servile War. — In the mean time, Eome was con- 
fronted with a terrific danger. This was a slave insurrection. 
Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian, made captive in war, and afterward 
kept in a training-school for Gladiators, at Capua, broke 
loose from his place of bondage with a number of his fellow- 
prisoners, and fleeing to Mount Vesuvius, was joined by a 
vast number of slaves and outlaws of every description. 
Having collected a force of over 100,000 men, he moved 
northward, defeated the regular army in several engage- 
ments, and threatened Eome itself. At last he was met by 
a large force under Oras'sus, and his army cut to pieces, he 
himself being among the slain (71 B. a). This was the 

63. Which was the popular party? The aristocratic party? Who was Serto- 
rius ? How and when was he subdued ? 

61. Who was Spartacus? By whom was the revolt of the slaves subdued? 
What other revolt is spoken of? What led to these revolts ? 



92 KOME. [B.C. 61. 

second great slave revolt, one having, about 60 years before, 
broken out in Sicily, and been reduced only after frightful 
massacres aud ravages. These insurrections were the 
natural result of the dreadful slave-system pursued in the 
Roman conquests. 

65. At this time, Pompey and Orassus were the two lead- 
ing men at Eome. The former, by his conduct during the 
civil war, his good fortune in Spain, and the timely assist- 
ance he had rendered against Spartacus, had contrived to 
acquire very great popularity. Sylla had given to him, 
when yet a young man, the title of Magnus — the Great. 
Crassus exerted a powerful influence by means of his im- 
mense wealth, which he had craftily acquired by buying 
up the estates of the proscribed during the dictatorship of 
Sylla. Pompey being sent against the pirates of the Medi- 
terranean, acted with so much energy and address, that in 
three months he entirely cleared the seas of those robbers 
(66 b. a). 

66. In the mean time, Lu-cuTlus had been winning vic- 
tories over Mithridates and his son-in-law Ti-gra'nes, king 
of Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a 
mutiny of his troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into 
Asia, with the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a 
close. This he accomplished in less than three years, sub- 
duing both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to a 
Koman province (63 B. a). He also reduced Syria, and 
took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of Judea, 
and making the kingdom tributary to Eome. Having 
regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority 
of an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to 
Italy (61 b. a). 

67. Jewish History. — After the edict of Cyrus, the 
. — . 

65. What influence did Pompey and Crassus exert at this time? How had 
Crassus become wealthy ? What was accomplished by Pompey in 66 b. c. ? 

66. What victories had Lucullus gained ? "By whom was he superseded? What 
5id Pompey accomplish ? 

67. Give a brief sketch of Jewish history down to this time. 



B. C. 62.] 



ROME. 93 



Jews remained under the dominion of Persia, till the time 
of Alexander ; and after his death, their country became 
subject to Ptolemy. Subsequently, the kings of Egypt and 
Syria contended for it, until, in 198 b. c, Antiochus the 
Great defeated the Egyptians, and thus became its ruler. 
In consequence of the oppression of one of his successors, 
the Jews revolted, under the renowned Judas Mac-ca-Wus, 
who, in a succession of victories, routed the Syrian armies 
and entered Jerusalem in triumph. After his death (161 
B. a), his brothers completed the work of national deliver- 
ance, and they and their successors ruled as high-priests 
until (in 106 B. c.) Ar-is-to-bu'lus assumed the crown. 
When Pompey invaded Asia, Aristobulus II. was on the 
throne; but his right was disputed by his brother, John 
JJyr-ca'nus, whom Pompey, after besieging Jerusalem three 
months, and taking the city, placed over the kingdom (63 
B. a). The successors of Judas Maccabeus are called the 
Maccabees, or the As-mo-nm'an Dynasty. 

68. Conspiracy of Catiline.— While Pompey was in 
Asia, Cat'i-llne, a profligate and needy patrician, formed a 
conspiracy to murder the consul, and then plunder and 
burn the city (63 B. a). The plot was, however, discovered 
in time by Cic'e-ro, the great orator, who denounced Cati- 
line, and compelled him to flee from Eome. His confed- 
erates, who had been left in the city to consummate the 
wicked scheme, were betrayed by some Gauls whom they 
endeavored to gain over to their service, and being imme- 
diately apprehended were put to death, through the cour- 
age aud promptitude of the consul Cicero. Catiline, at the 
head of a numerous force which he had succeeded in col- 
lecting, was defeated and slain (62 b. a). 

69. First Triumvirate.— In the mean time, Ja'lius 
Cce'sar had won considerable distinction by his courage 
and address as a politician, and his skill as a military 

68. What conspiracy was discovered at Rome ? How was it suppressed ? 

69. How was the first triumvirate formed ? What did Caesar gam by it ? 



94 SOME. [B. C. 50. 

. 

commander. Finding Pompey and Crassus hostile to each 
other, he succeeded in reconciling them, and in establish- 
ing an alliance by which the three were to support each 
other's plans and interests (60 b. a). This secret cabal has 
been called the First Tri-um'vir-ate.* By the support of 
his two powerful confederates, Caesar obtained the consul- 
ship ; and at its close, the Senate passed a decree by which 
he was assigned, as proconsul, to the government of Gaul, 
with the command of an army to subdue the barbarians, 
who had commenced hostile movements. 

70. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; 
and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating 
all the warlike races of that country, but, crossing the 
Ehine, gained great victories over the bold and hardy Ger- 
mans. He also passed into Britain, and defeated the fierce 
and warlike inhabitants, who strove with the greatest in- 
trepidity to repel the invaders from their island (55 B. a). 
By 50 b. a, his province was completely subdued ; and it 
is computed that in these eight years of war, nearly a mil- 
lion of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Caesar never 
showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while, toward 
his fellow-citizens, he was remarkable for mildness and 
humanity. 

71. In the mean time, Crassus had obtained the pro- 
consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- 
pedition against the Par'thians, an eastern race who, first 
appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered 
the vast region extending from the Euphrates to the Indus. 
In this expedition Crassus was defeated and slain (53 b. a). 
His lieutenant, Cassius (kash'e-us), however, prosecuted the 
war two years longer, and gaining a decided victory over 
the Parthians, checked their further advance westward. 

* Triumvirate means an association consisting of three men. 



70. What is said of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ? 

7 1 . What became of Crassus ? Who defeated the Parthians ? 



J*. C. 48.] EOME. 95 

Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained in 
Rome, governing his province by means of lieutenants. 

72. Second Civil War.— One of the members of the 
triumvirate having been removed by death, and Pompey 
having become intensely jealous of Caesar, the coalition was 
practically dissolved. Pompey, determining to supplant 
Caesar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the party 
of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and obtained 
in succession two decrees : first, that Caesar should forth- 
with disband his army ; and second, that, as he had not 
obeyed, he should be proclaimed an outlaw, Pompey him- 
self all the while retaining his army in Spain, as well as 
other forces in Italy, in order to enforce his ambitious 
designs. Caesar, seeing that he could only oppose violence 
by violence, at once broke up his camp, and crossing the 
river Ru'U-con, the boundary of his province, entered Italy, 
with a small army, afterward re-enforced by detachments 
from Gaul. Thus was commenced the Second Civil War. 

73. Pompey, with what forces he had, and accompanied 
by many of the senators and others, fled to Brundu'sium, 
from which port, having collected a large fleet, he sailed to 
Epirus. Caesar soon overran Italy ; and then proceeded to 
Spain, where, with consummate address, he speedily won 
over Pompey's generals, and annexed their forces to his own. 
Eeturning, he then crossed to Epirus to give battle to Pom- 
pey. No general engagement, however, took place till the 
next year ; when, on the plains of Phar-sa'li-a, the battle 
was joined, and Caesar, although with forces far inferior in 
number, gained a decisive victory (48 b. a). Pompey took 
refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously assassinated as he 
was about to step ashore. 

74. Caesar, with his characteristic promptitude, pursued 



72. What caused the dissolution of the Triumvirate? What caused Caesar a 
in\ asion of Italy ? . ' 

73. What cdurse did Pompey take ? Caesar ? What battle decided the contest ? 
What became of Pompey ? 

74. What took place on Caesar's reaching Egypt ? 



96 EOME. Pi. C. 48. 

Ponipey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented 
with the head and ring of his great rival. He turned aside 
with tears from the mournful and ghastly spectacle, and 
ordered Pompey's remains to be burnt with due honor. 
He caused also a monument to be erected, to commemorate 
the splendid fortune, as well as the sad reverse, of his former 
friend and associate. Having none of the ferocious and 
bloodthirsty malignity of Marius and Sylla, he freely par- 
doned all who had opposed him; and, consequently, the 
greater number of Pompey's partisans were soon won over 
to his standard. 

75. The succession to the throne of Egypt was, at that 
time, in dispute between the young King Ptolemy and his 
sister, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. Caesar, influenced by the 
fascinations of the latter, decided in her favor, and thus 
incurred the hostility of Ptolemy's adherents, who raised a 
fearful insurrection against him. This, however, in a few 
months he reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. 
During this war at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyp- 
tian fleet, and the flames having extended to the public 
library, that immense collection of more than 100,000 vol- 
umes, containing all the most valuable works of ancient 
times, was destroyed (48 b. a). 

76. From Egypt Caesar proceeded against Phar-na' ces, 
son of the great Mithridates, who had risen in rebel- 
lion and seized upon Armenia and Colchis. Him Caesar 
speedily defeated at Ze'la, in Pontus, and announced his 
victory to the Koman Senate in three words — Vent, vidi, 
vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In two months all Asia 
was restored to tranquillity, and Caesar then returned to 
Eome, to assume the office of dictator. Proceeding next to 
Africa, he gained a great victory at Thap'sus over the forces 
of Scipio, who, assisted by Ju'la, king of Mauritania, still 

75. What caused an insurrection at Alexandria ? What was the effect of it ? 

7 6. What other important victories Avere gained hy Caesar ? Whore was Thap- 
bus ? — Am. In the northern part of Africa. What hecame of Cato ? 



B. C. 44.] EOME. 97 

adhered to the senatorial party. Ca'to, called the Stoic,* on 
account of his stern virtue, seeing that all was lost, and 
that the Eoman republic was now at an end, committed 
suicide at U'ti-ca (46 b. a). 

77. Haying formed JSTumidia into a Roman province, 
Caesar returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraor- 
dinary magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, 
Pontus, and Numidia. A general amnesty was then de- 
clared, and the soldiers were rewarded with liberal dona- 
tions. But before he could settle affairs at Rome, he was 
called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey had raised 
an army against him. These he defeated in the severe bat- 
tle of Mun'da, which closed the war. Having thus become 
master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword and 
cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many important 
reforms in the laws and government, rectified the calendar, 
and formed plans for many other great and useful works. 

78. But while meditating these, a stop was suddenly put 
to his magnificent career. A conspiracy having been formed 
against him by a large body of nobles, prominent among 
whom were Brutus and Cassius, the former his most inti- 
mate friend, he was attacked in the Senate house, and fell 
pierced with twenty-three wounds (March, 44 b. a). The 
reason alleged for his assassination was that he meditated 
making himself king; and Brutus, a nephew of Cato, was 
probably sincere in this belief; but the others seem to have 
been actuated by feelings rather of envy than of patriotism. 
Besides, the leading conspirators were guilty of base ingrati- 
tude ; for they had been freely pardoned their former oppo- 
sition to Caesar's party, and placed in offices of power and 



* The Stoics were a sect of Grecian philosophers who inculcated the doctrine that fortitude is 
the chief virtue, and prided themselves upon their endurance of pain, and insensibility to mis- 
fortune. 



7 7. What triumphs did Caesar celebrate ? What is said of the battle of Munda ? 
Where was Munda ? Ans. In the south of Spain. What did Caesar accomplish 
as dictator ? 

78. How was his career closed ? What was the cause of his assassination ? 



98 ROME. [B. C. 44. 

emolument. Cassius indeed had been one of the mos ^ 
active of Pompey's adherents. Le 

79. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Rome evei ^ 
produced. He was not only an able general and a consum- 
mate statesman and politician, but a splendid orator, a fiue 
scholar, and an elegant writer. His history of the Gallic 
campaigns, styled the " Commentaries," is a complete model ^ 
for this kind of composition. His knowledge of human ._ 
nature seems to haye been almost perfect, for he swayed the 
minds of all who came within his influence, to an extent , 
rarely equalled and never surpassed. His great crime was, 
that having acquired power he knew not how to lay it l 
down, preferring to retain it, although in so doing he de- . 
stroyed forever the liberties of his country ; for the battles 
of Pharsalia, TKapsus, and Munda established the Roman 
empire, and Julius Caesar virtually become its first emperor. 

80. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to 
the capitol, where they remained until they entered into an 
agreement with Mai*Jc An' tony, the consul, and a particular 
friend of Caesar, that all his laws should remain in force, 
that his will should be carried into effect, and that his body 
should be honored with a public funeral. Accordingly it 
was carried into the forum ; and Mark Antony pronounced 
over it a funeral oration, in the course of which he exposed 
the bleeding wounds to the people, and so worked upon 
their sympathies, that they arose against the conspirators 
and compelled them to flee from the city. 

81. Antony having thus became master of Rome, pro- 
duced Caesar's will, and other papers which he represented 
as containing his acts and wishes. These he strenuously 
enforced, until he excited the opposition of the senatorial 
party, led by Cicero, who pronounced against Antony those 
severe but magnificent orations, styled, in imitation of De- 

79. What was his character ? 

80. What events followed the murder of Coesar? What Avas done hy Mark An- 
tony ? What was the effect of his oration ? 

8 1 . What were the Philippics ? Why were they spoken ? Who was Octavius ? 



B. C. 42.] KOME. 99 

nosthenes, the Philippics. In the mean while Oc-ta'vi-us, 
\ young man, the nephew and adopted son of Caesar, 
arrived in Kome, and immediately demanded the property 
.eft him by his adopted father. 

i §2. Second Triumvirate. — Being sustained by the 
Senate, Octavius declared against Antony, who, defeated 
oy the consuls in battle, fled into Gaul, and there formed 
I union with Lep'i-dus, the general who had command of 
jhat province. The two then marched to oppose Octavius, 
jut finally entered into a negotiation with him; and the 
three then agreed to form a second triumvirate and, after 
ounishing the murderers of Caesar, to divide the empire 
imong themselves (43 b. a). A dreadful proscription and 
massacre followed the formation of this league, each of 
:he triumvirs inserting in the list all whom he deemed 
hostile and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than 
three hundred Senators and two thousand knights were 
.imong the proscribed ; and among the victims sacrificed 
to the hatred of Antony, was Cicero. 

83. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, 
e triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Cassius, 

ho, with the design of restoring the liberties of their coun- 
try, had succeeded in making themselves masters of all the 
eastern part of the empire. Antony and Octavius crossed 
to Macedonia, and engaged the republican forces at Plii- 
lip'pi, where Cassius and Brutus were successively defeated, 
each slaying himself at the close of the battle (42 b. a). 
These victories left to the Triumvirate absolute control of 
the empire. 

84. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned 
with her to Egypt, and surrendered himself to the wiles of 
that artful beauty. At last, after neglecting his duty for 

82. What led to the second triumvirate ? What proscriptions followed? What 
illustrious man was put to death ? 

83. Where were Brutus and Cassius defeated? What was the result of these 
battles ? Where was Philippi ? (See Map of Greece.) 

84. What led to the battle of Actium? What was its result? Where was 
Actium ? Am. On the western shore of Greece. 



100 EOME. [B.C. 31. 

years, he gave great offence to Octayius by divorcing his 
sister Octavia, in order to marry the Egyptian queen. This 
brought on a war between the two triumvirs, which was 
ended by the battle of Actium (ak'she-um), Antony and 
Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 B. a). Fleeing to 
Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra put an end 
to her life (it is said by means of a venomous asp) in order 
to prevent being compelled to grace the triumph of Octavi- 
us*. Her death terminated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, 
which had existed about three centuries (323-31 b. a). 

85. Egypt having been made a Eoman province, and 
plundered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- 
tavius with funds to reward his soldiers, he returned to 
Rome, where he was formally invested with absolute 
authority by the Senate, who saluted him by the title of 
Augustus. The date of the battle of Actium is generally 
chosen as the era of the commencement of the Eoman em- 
pire. Subsequently, the government was in fact a military 
despotism, under which the Eomans were so hopeless of 
relief that they made no effort to restore their republican 
constitution. 






CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

B. C. 

753. Foundation of Rome. 

509. Expulsion of the Tarquins — Era of the Republic. 

494. Creation of the Tribunes. 

486. First Agrarian law proposed by Cassius. 

485. Coriolanus banished. Rome saved by female intercession. 

471. Law of Volero. Rome a Democracy. 

451. Appointment of Deeemvirs. 

445. Intermarriage of patricians and plebeians permitted. 

391. Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 

390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. 

343. Commencement of the war with the Samnites. 

321. Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites. 

305. The Samnites subdued. 

85. What was done byOctavius? What title did he assume? What was th» 
character of the government of Eome under him ? 






EOME. 101 

. 

295. The Samnites, Umbrians, &c, defeated at Sentinum. 

Rome Mistress of Italy. 
280. The Romans defeated by Pyrrhus. 

275. Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans under Curius Dentatus. 
264. Commencement of the First Punic War. 
255. Regulus taken prisoner by the Carthaginians. 
241. End of the First Punic War. 
218. Commencement of the Second Punic War. The Romana 

defeated by Hannibal at the Ticinus. 
217. Battle of Trasimenus. The Romans defeated. 
216. Battle of Cannae. 

212. Taking of Syracuse by the Romans. Death of Archimedes. 
205. Conquest of Spain by Scipio. 
202. Battle of Zama. Hannibal defeated by Scipio. 
190. Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Magnesia. 
146. Carthage taken and destroyed. Corinth taken. 
140. Viriatus assassinated. 
133. Spain completely subjugated. 
132. Death of Tiberius Gracchus. 
121. Caius Gracchus put to death. 
106. Jugurtha taken prisoner by Marius and Sylla. 
102. The Teutons defeated by Marius. 
101. The Cimbrians defeated by Marius. 

90. The Social War. 

88. Commencement of the Mithridatic War. First Civil War, 

87. Marius's proscription. 

82. Sylla' s proscription. 

72. Assassination of Sertorius in Spain. 

71. Spartacus defeated and slain. 

66. Pompey clears the Mediterranean of pirates. 

66. Mithriclates subdued. Pontus a Roman province. 

63. Conspiracy of Catiline. 

60. First Triumvirate. 

55. Invasion of Britain by Caesar. 

53. Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthians. 

48. Battle of Pharsalia. Pompey defeated. 

46. Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato. 

44. Assassination of Caesar. 

43. Second Triumvirate. 

42. Battles of Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius. 

31. Battle of Actium. 

30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. 

29. Octavius emperor under the title of Augustus. 



102 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORANEOUS EVENTS. 



Cent 


B. C 


Rome. 


I Gkeece. 


Othek Nations. 




776 1 


First Olympiad. 






753 Foundation of Rome. 








747 






Era of Nabonassar. 


8th. 


743 
734 
721 
720 




First Messenian War. 
Syracuse founded. 


Samaria taken. 
Lydians in Asia Minor. 




715 
685 


Numa Pompilius. 










Second Messenian War. 






672 


Tnllus Hostilius. 








640 


Ancus Martius. 






7th. 


625 
624 
616 

610 


Tarquin the Elder. 


Draco at Athens. 


The Medes takeNineveh 
Battle between the Lyd- 











ians and Medes. 




594 




Solon at Athens. 






588 






Jerusalem taken by Neb- 
uchadnezzar. 




578 


Servius Tullius. 








560 




Pisistratus at Athens. 






546 






Cyrus subdues Croesus. 


6th. 


538 
534 

525 


Tarquin the Proud. 




Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

Pelusium taken by Cam- 
byses. 




510 




Hippius expelled from 








Athens. 




^__ 


509 
495 


Tarquins expelled. 










Miletus taken by Darius. 






494 


Creation of Tribunes. 






5th. 


485 


Coriolanus. 




Accession of Xerxes. 




471 


Law of Volero. 


Themistocles banished. 






464 






Death of Xerxes. 





449 


Decemvirate abolished. 


Death of Cimon. 






394 


Romans take Veii. 


Battle of Coronea. 






359 




Accession of Philip of 
Macedon. 






346 
343 


Samnite War begins. 


Sacred War ends. 




4th. 


323 




Lamian War. 


Death of Alexander the 
Great. 




321 


Battle of Caudine Forks 










Demetrius Phalereus 






307 




expelled from Athens. 






305 


Samnites subdued. 








301 






Battle of Ipsus. 




280 


Pyrrhus invades Italy. 


Gauls invade Greece. 


Seleucus assassinated. 




241 


End of 1st Punic War. 


Aratus. — Agis. 


Sicily made a Roman 

province. 

Kingdoms of Parthia & 

Bactria founded. 




221 




Sparta taken by Antigo- 


3d. 




nus. 




218 


2d Punic War begino. 








213 




Aratus poisoned. 






212 


Syracuse taken. 








205 


Scipio in Spain. 


Philopoemen. 






184 


Death of Scipio Africa- 
nus. 






2d. 


183 
161 




Death of Philopoemen. 


Death of Hannibal. 
Death of Judas Macca- 
beus. 




146 


Carthage taken by the 


Corinth taken by the 






Romans. 


Romans. 





ROME. 103 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. Give au account of the foundation of Rome 67 

2. How long did the monarchy last ? 67-68 

3. What is the character of this part of the history ? Why ? 67 

4. What officers afterward performed the duties of the kings ? 68 

5. Give an account of the wars with the Tarquins 68 

6. What led to the creation of Tribunes ? 69 

7. When and how did the people acquire a control of the government ? 70 

8. What disposition was made of the conquered lands by the Romans ? 70 

9. What were the Tivelve Tables ? By whom framed ? 71 

10. What was the office of dictator ? Name the first prominent dictator 69-71" 

11. Give an account of Camillus 72 

12. Mention the events connected with the invasion of Italy by the Gauls . . . 72-74 

13. Give the history of Marcus Manlius 73-74 

14. What wars were waged with the Samnites ? Their result ? 75-76 

15. Give an account of the invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus 76 

16. What rendered Rome mistress of all Italy ? 77 

17. How was it governed ? 77 

18. What led to the Punic wars ? 77-78 

19. Give a sketch of the previous history of Carthage. Of Syracuse 77 

20. What were the principal events of the first Punic war ? 78-79 

21. Give a sketch of the career of Hannibal 79-83 

22. When and how did Sicily become a Roman province ? 79 

23. When and how was Syracuse finally subdued ? , 81 

24. What led to the battle of Magnesia ? Its consequences ? 83 

25. How did Pergamus become a Roman province ? 84 

26. When and how were Macedonia and Greece subdued ? 84 

27. Give an account of the third Punic war 85 

28. When and how were the Celtiberians and Lusitanians subdued ? . . . 86 

29. Who were the Gracchi, and what measures did they propose ? 86-87 

30. Give an account of the war against Jugurtha 88 

31. What invasion by the Cimbrians and Teutons ? By whom were they 

repelled ? 88-89 

32. Give an account of the Social War 89 

33. What wars were waged against Mithridates ? Principal events of them?.. 89 

34. What led to the first civil war ? Its chief events ? 90 

35. State the principal events in the life of Sylla 90-91 

36. What servile wars broke out ? The principal events ? 91 

37. What successes raised Pompey to distinction ? 92 

38. Give an account of Catiline and his conspiracy 93 

39. What led to the first triumvirate ? 93 

40. What conquests did Cassar make while proconsul ? 94 

41. What caused dissensions between him and Pompey ? 95 

42. What civil war followed ? Its principal events ? 95-96 

43. What great victories did Cyesar gain ? 96-97 

44. What office did he assume ? What were his principal measures ? 97 

45. How was his career terminated ? 97 

46. What civil war followed ? Its chief events ? 98-99 

47. Who formed the second triumvirate ? 99 

48. How did Octavius acquire the supreme power ? 99 

49. What did Rome then become ? 100 



104 THE ROMAK EMPIRE. [A. ». 10. 



section iv. 

The Eomak Empire, 

From its establishment under Augustus to the Fall of the Western 

Empire, 476 a. d. 

1. Augustus. — Although Augustus ruled with absolute 
power, he retained the forms of the republican govern- 
ment, but caused all the important offices to be conferred 
upon himself. The Senate still held its sessions, but its 
deliberations and decrees had no real weight or efficacy. 
The long civil wars had made the Eomans greatly desire 
tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled with equity and 
moderation, avoiding every appearance of royalty, all 
yielded cheerfully to his authority. He kept large armies 
and fleets stationed at various parts of the empire, to re- 
press all opposition, and compel obedience to his com- 
mands and exactions ; and instituted the Prcetorian 
Guards* to protect his person. The revenues of the 
empire probably amounted at this time to upwards of 
$200,000,000. 

2. Augustus made some conquests in Spain ; and his 
stepsons Ti-be'ri-us and Dru'sus succeeded in conquering 
Vin-de-W ci-a and Nor'i-cum, but their efforts to subdue 

* So called from Prcetorium, the name given to the tent of the general in every Roman 
camp. These prastorian guards afterward became the chief instruments of usurpation and 
tyranny. 

Map Questions. (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) — Name the divisions of the Ro- 
man Empire in the northern part of Africa. What divisions in Europe bordered 
on the Mediterranean ? What divisions in Asia on the Mediterranean and yEgean 
Seas? On the Euxine Sea ? What north of Italy and Hlvr'icum ? What south of 
the Danube ? North of it ? What east, of Gallia or Gaul'? North ? What towns in 
Spain ? What body of water was called Pa'lus MeO'tis ? What towns on the 
Euphrates and Tigris rivers ? What towns in Syria ? What towns in Thrace ? 
In Dalmatia ? In Northern Italy ? 

1 . How did Augustus rule ? How was the empire protected ? What were ita 
revenues ? 

2. What conquests were made ? By whom was Varus defeated ? When did 
Augustus die ? By whom was he succeeded 2 



PR GR E S S 1VE M AP N ? 4. 




A. ». 14.] THE KOMAK EMPIEE. 105 

Germany were thwarted by the difficulties of the country 
and the valor of the native population. Led by the braye 
and patriotic Ar-min'i-us, or Her'mann, some of the tribes 
that had submitted to the Eomans revolted, and the pro- 
consul Va'rus was surprised, and his army cut to pieces 
(a. d. 10). This disaster so preyed upon the emperor's 
mind that he died a short time after (a. d. 14), in the 76th 
year of his ' age, leaving the government to his stepson 
Tiberius. 

3. Augustus and his friend and minister Mecsenas {me- 
se'nas) were both liberal patrons of learning and the arts ; 
and the literature of this period is greatly distinguished 
for genius and refinement. The celebrated poets Vir'gil, 
Hor'ace, and Ov'id, and the historian Liv'y, flourished 
during this reign. The most interesting event of this 
period was the Birth of our Saviour, which is supposed to 
have taken place 4 b. c. ; that is, four years previous to the 
date commonly assigned for the Christian era. It occurred 
during the reign of Her'od the Great, king of Judea, who 
had been placed upon the throne by the favor of Mark 
Antony. 

4. Tiberius. — In the first part of his reign, Tiberius 
assumed an appearance of great moderation and clemency, 
taking the sovereign power only after the urgent requests 
of the Senate, and binding himself to conform to the regu- 
lations of his predecessor. He soon, however, displayed 
the wickedness and cruelty of his disposition, and many 
of the most eminent nobles were put to death on a charge 
of treason. The brilliant career of his nephew and adopted 
son, Ger-marii-cus, excited his jealousy; and recalling 
him from Germany, where he had gained important victo- 
ries over the heroic Hermann, he sent him to the East, 
and there caused him to be poisoned. 

3. By whom was literature encouraged ? What writers flourished ? When did 
the birth of Christ occur ? 

4. What was the character of Tiberius and his government ? What is related 
of Germanicus ? 



106 THE EOMAK EMPIRE. [A. D. 41. 

5. Yielding to the persuasions of his wicked and rapa- 
cious minister, Se-ja'nus, he secluded himself in the island 
of Ca'pre-ae, where he abandoned himself to every species of 
licentiousness and yice ; while this minister perpetrated the 
most enormous acts of injustice and tyranny. The latter, 
having been discovered at last in a plot to place himself 
on the throne, was executed by the order of Tiberius, who, 
after the death of his favorite, became still more cruel and 
bloodthirsty, putting to death without mercy all against 
whom his spies and informers excited his gloomy jealousy. 
At last, worn out with his vicious excesses, and feeling that 
his end was near, he bequeathed the empire to Caius Ca- 
lig'u-la, son of Germanicus, and soon after died (a. d. 37). 
The crucifixion of our Saviour took place in Judea, in the 
eighteenth year of. this reign (a. d. 33). 

6. Caligula. — Caius, surnamed Caligula, from the sol- 
diers' boots (cal'i-gm) which he wore when in the camp in 
Germany, commenced his reign well ; but after he had 
worn the purple* eight months, displayed so wanton and 
ferocious a disposition, that his acts seem like the wild 
freaks of a madman. He wasted the treasures of the state 
in the most foolish and expensive works. His favorite 
horse was kept in a stable constructed of marble, and 
offered golden oats in an ivory manger. Massacre seemed 
to be his delight, and he feasted his eyes in beholding the 
dying agonies of his victims. A conspiracy, led by the 
captain of the Praetorian Guards, at last relieved the em- 
pire from the tyranny of this monster (a. d. 41). 

7. Claudius. — On the death of Caligula, the Praetorian 
Guards chose Clau'di-us, his uncle, to succeed him. This 



* This was the peculiar color of the emperor's robe ; and, hence, to " assume the purple," 
sigriiied the same as to ascend the throne. 



5. Wlio was the minister of Tiberius ? His character and fate ? Who succeeded 
Tiberius ? What interesting event occurred in his reign ? 

6. What was the character of Caligula ? What acts of folly and cruelty did he 
commit ? What was his end ? 

7. Who succeeded Caligula ? What were the principal events of the reign of 
Claudius ? What is said of Messalina and Agrippina ? 



A. ©. 54.] THE EOMAK EMPIKE. 10? 

emperor was fifty years old wherl he commenced to reign, 
and was remarkable for the imbecility of his character, 
being entirely ruled by his wives and favorites. He, how- 
ever, embellished Borne with many splendid edifices, and 
went in person on a campaign in Britain, where his 
armies gained important victories, subduing all the south- 
ern part of the island, and sending the celebrated chief 
Ca-rac'ta-cus a captive to Borne. Influenced by his wicked 
and profligate wives Mes-sa-li'na and Ag-rip-pi'na, Clau- 
dius caused many innocent persons to be put to death, 
but was at last poisoned at the instigation of Agrippina, in 
order that her son Ne'ro might assume the purple (a. d. 54). 

8. Nero. — This emperor was only seventeen years old 
when he commenced to reign ; and as he had received an 
excellent education under the instruction of the philoso- 
pher Sen'e-ca, his acts were for a few years just and virtu- 
ous. At length he betrayed the wickedness of his charac- 
ter, and abandoned himself to every species of vice and 
cruelty. Dreading the influence of his mother, he ordered 
her to be murdered. He also brutally caused the death of 
his wife. He is said to have ordered the city of Borne to be 
set on fire, so that he might behold a great conflagration ; 
but he afterward rebuilt it and erected for himself a palace 
of vast extent and splendor. To escape the indignation of 
the people, he charged the crime of firing the city upon the 
Christians, and caused multitudes of them to be put to 
death by the most dreadful tortures. During this persecu- 
tion, the Apostle Paul was beheaded. 

9. A conspiracy against the emperor having been dis- 
covered, many innocent persons were put to death, among 
them Seneca, and the poet Lu'can. The detestable reign 
of Nero was brought to a close by a movement of the 
army in Spain, who, disgusted with his wickedness and 

8. How did Nero commence his reign ? What cruel acts did he commit ? 

9. Why were Seneca and Lucan executed ? What terminated the reign of Nero ? 
What were the feelings of the common people toward him ? What revolt occurred 
during Nero's reign ? 



108 THE EOMAK EMPIRE. [A. ». 69.] 

folly, proclaimed their praetor Gal'ba emperor, who imme- 
diately commenced his march to Eome. Deserted by his 
guards, Nero was compelled to nee, and finally committed 
suicide to avoid being publicly executed (a. d. 68). The 
common people, to whom he had been profuse in his boun- 
ties, lamented his death, and decorated his tomb with 
flowers. He was the last of the family of the Caesars, and 
probably the vilest monarch that ever lived. In this 
reign (a. d. 66) a revolt of the Jews took place, and lasted 
through several of the succeeding reigns. 

10. Galba was over 70 years of age when he com- 
menced to reign, having served as proconsul in various 
parts of the empire during the four preceding reigns, 
and obtained a high reputation for bravery, as well 
as for the rigid justice of his administration. He soon, 
however, became unpopular, from his severity ; and the 
soldiers, being refused their usual donative, revolted. 
O'tlio, taking advantage of their discontent, induced the 
praetorian guards to proclaim him emperor; and Galba, 
attempting to quell the sedition, was slain in the streets by 
one of the veterans, after a brief reign of seven months. 

11. Otho was no sooner in possession of the govern- 
ment than he gave himself up to unbridled license and 
debauchery ; but he soon found a rival in Vi-tel'li-us, the 
commander of the army in Lower Germany, who, revolting 
from the authority of the new emperor, marched with his 
forces into Italy, where he was met, on the banks of the 
Po, by Otho, but gained a decided victory over him, and 
was at once acknowledged emperor. Otho committed 
suicide at the close of the battle, after a reign of only three 
months (a. d. 69). 

12. Vitellius had been a companion of Tiberius at 
Capreae, and a favorite with his infamous successors, Calig- 

10. What was the character of Galba ? What led to his death ? 

1 1 . What was the conduct of Otho ? How did his reign end ? 

12. Describe the character and conduct of Vitellius. By whom was he de- 
feated ? 



A. D. 70.] THE ROMAK EMPIRE. _ 109 

ilia, Claudius, and Nero. He was greatly addicted to 
gluttony and debauchery ; and on his accession left the 
government to his favorites, while he devoted himself 
entirely to feasting and drunkenness, squandering in these 
indulgences nearly fifty millions of dollars in about four 
months. At length, the army, disgusted with these ex- 
cesses of the emperor, revolted from him in favor of Ves- 
pa'sian, their general, who had acquired distinction in the 
war against the Jews. The forces of Yitellius being 
defeated at Cre-mo'na, he was compelled to abdicate, but 
the populace dragged him from the palace to the place of 
common execution, and put him to death with dreadful 
cruelty and ignominy (a. d. 69). His reign lasted about 
eight months. 

13. Vespasian presented a striking contrast, both in 
talent and virtue, to those whom he succeeded. He re- 
stored the discipline of the army, revived the authority 
of the Senate, filling its wasted ranks with eminent and 
virtuous men, and in other respects reformed the poli- 
tical and social condition of the city and empire. He 
commenced the famous Col-os-se'um or Amphitheatre, the 
ruins of which still exist to show its ancient magnifi- 
cence ; and he also patronized learning and the arts. Quin- 
til'i-an, the celebrated rhetorician, Jo-se'pJius, the Jewish 
historian, and Plin'y, a noted writer and naturalist, flour- 
ished during this reign, which lasted about ten years (until 
A. D. 79). Its most noted event was the taking and destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by Ti'tus, the son of Vespasian. This 
was accomplished after a terrible siege of six months, 
during which, according to Josephus, more than a million 
of persons perished. The city was razed to the ground, and 
the inhabitants sold, or driven into banishment (a. d. 70). 

14. Titus. — This emperor ruled with so much justice 

1 3. What was the character of Vespasian ? Who flourished during his reign ? 
What noted event occurred ? 

14. What was the character of Titus ? What interesting events occurred dwing 
his reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? 



110 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. ». 84. 

and beneficence that lie is styled by Tacitus (tas'e-tus), the 
historian, the " Delight of Mankind." His reign was 
marked by many disastrous events. In the first year 
occurred the dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, during which 
the cities of Pompeii (pom-pe'yi) and Her-cu-la'ne-nm 
were overwhelmed by a dense shower of black ashes, that 
fell burying most of the inhabitants in their dwellings. 
Fugitives from Campania flocked into Eome, and a ter- 
rible pestilence ensued, in which 10,000 persons died daily. 
This was succeeded by a great conflagration that raged for 
several days, and destroyed a considerable portion of the 
city. Titus gave liberally to relieve the sufferers, and 
caused the edifices which had been consumed to be rebuilt. 
He also completed the Colosseum, commenced by Vespa- 
sian. His death occurred soon after, in the third year of 
his reign (a. d. 81), and he was succeeded by his brother, 
Domitian (do-mish' e-an) . 

15. Domitian was as remarkable for tyranny and cru- 
elty as his brother had been distinguished for justice and 
humanity. He united the gloomy dissimulation of Tiberius 
with the wanton wickedness of Caligula and Nero. The 
armies under his leadership were defeated by the Dacians 
and other barbarous nations, with whom he made disgrace- 
ful treaties, while he demanded the triumphs usually de- 
creed to the most splendid victories. He was very fond of 
.solitude, amusing himself principally by catching flies and 
transfixing them with a bodkin. After a shameful reign 
of fifteen years, he was assassinated (a. d. 96). The con- 
quest of Britain, excepting the northern part, was com- 
pleted during this period (a. d. 84), by A-gric'o-la, who, 
in this and the two preceding reigns, had defeated the 
inhabitants in several great battles. There also occurred 
during this reign a second general persecution of the 
Christians. Domitian was the last of the emperors called 

15. What was the character of Domitian? What were the events of hia 
reign ? What line of emperors ends with him ? 



A.U. 117.] THE EOMAK EMPIRE. Ill 

the twelve Ccesars (Julius Caesar being considered the 
first). 

16. The five good Emperors. — Nerva. After the 
death of Domitian, the Senate decreed that his statues 
should be demolished and his name erased from the annals. 
They then unanimously elected as his successor Ner'va, 
who had been twice consul, and was then in his seventieth 
year. He displayed great wisdom and moderation, dimin- 
ished the taxes, and introduced other reforms. A revolt 
of the praetorian guards caused him to adopt as his succes- 
sor the virtuous Tra'jan, a short time after which he died, 
having reigned only sixteen months (a. d. 98). 

17. Trajan was by birth a Spaniard, but he had been 
educated partly in the school of Plu'tarcli,* whom he highly 
honored during the whole of his reign. He was equally 
great as a monarch and a general, while his many virtues 
entitle him to a place among the best of men. He re- 
formed the government, and bound himself by a solemn 
oath to observe the laws. He conquered the Dacians, 
penetrating their country by means of a stupendous bridge 
which he caused to be built across the Danube. He also 
gained several victories in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and 
Parthia, the cities of Se-leu'cia and Ctes'i-phon\ surrender- 
ing to his arms. The lofty and splendid pillar which he 
erected to commemorate these conquests still remains. His 
death took place in Cilicia (a. d. 117), after he had reigned ■ 
about twenty years. 

18. Adrian, a relative of Trajan, and the companion 

* Plutarch was a native of Bceotia, in Greece ; but he had removed to Rome and opened a 
school there. His biography of illustrious men is one of the most interesting works of ancient 
literature. 

t Seleucia was founded by Seleucus, and became one of the most magnificent cities in the 
world. It was situated on the west bank of the Tigris, about forty miles from Babylon, which 
was partly despoiled and depopulated to enrich it. Ctesiphon was built by the Parthians on the 
east bank of the Tigris, nearly opposite Seleucia, and became the capital of the Parthian 
monarchy. 

1 6. Who was the first of the " five good emperors" ? What is said of Nerva ? 

1 7. What was the character of Trajan ? What conquests did he make ? How 
long did he reign ? 

18. Who succeeded Trajan? What is related of his character? What were 
the chief events of his reign ? Who was his successor ? 



112 THE KOMAK EMPIRE. [A. ». 161. 

of his expeditions, was declared emperor by the army and 
Senate, and was distinguished for his talents and accom- 
plishments, being not only a successful general but a 
mathematician and artist. He spent thirteen years in 
visiting the different parts of the empire, to inspect the 
administration of the government. Having passed through 
Dacia, Germany, and G-aul, he sailed to Britain ; and while 
there, caused a wall to be constructed across the northern 
part of the island to prevent the inroads of the Scots.* 
He afterward visited the various provinces in Asia and 
Africa. An insurrection having broken out among the 
Jews, he reduced them to submission, and ordered that a 
Eoman colony should be established at Jerusalem, chang- 
ing its name to JE'li-a Cap-i-to-li'na. He died in the 
twenty-second year of his reign (a. d. 138). The virtues 
of A'dri-an were not unalloyed ; he severely persecuted 
the Jews and Christians ; and in the latter part of his 
reign, greatly provoked public indignation by his cruel- 
ties. He adopted as his successor An-to-ni'nus, surnamed 
the Pious. 

19. Antoninus Pius. — The reign of this emperor was 
one of almost uninterrupted peace, but was still more dis- 
tinguished for the virtue, wisdom, and efficiency with 
which he administered the government. Such was his 
reputation for these qualities, that princes beyond the 
bounds of the empire made him the arbiter of their differ- 
ences. He extended his dominions in Britain, and caused 
a wall to be built to the north of that constructed by Adri- 
an.f He died in his 75th year, after a reign of twenty- 
two years (a. d. 161), and was succeeded by his adopted 
son, Mar' cits Au-re'U-us Antoninus. 

20. Marcus Aurelius. — This emperor was also dis- 

* This was an earthen rampart constructed between the River Tyne and the Solway Frith, and 
was called the Pirfs' Wall. Considerable remains of it still exist, 
t Constructed between the friths of Forth and Clyde, and called afterward Graha?ne's Dike. 



1 9. What was the character of Antoninus ? What was done in Britain ? 



A. D. ISO.] THE K0MAJS" EMPIRE. 118 

tinguished for his virtues as a monarch and a statesman, 
and added to them the merits of a philosopher. He took 
Lu'cius Ve'rus for his colleague in the government, as- 
signing to him the eastern part of the empire, in which a 
war had broken out with the Parthians. This the lieutenants 
of Verus brought to a successful conclusion. War was also 
waged by both emperors against the Germans ; and after 
the death of Verus, Marcus himself carried on war, during 
five years, against the barbarians in Pan-no 'ni-a. In this 
latter war the Roman army was saved by a remarkable 
thunderstorm, which was imputed by some to the earnest 
supplications of a division of the army composed of Chris- 
tians, hence called the " Thundering Legion." 

21. A dreadful persecution of the Christians occurred 
during this reign ; and Jus' tin Mar'tyr and Pol'y-carp, the 
venerable bishop of Smyrna, fell victims to the superstitious 
fury of the pagans. The Germans, pressed by vast hordes 
of barbarians in their rear, were compelled to invade the 
territories of the empire, and Aurelius marched against 
them. After gaining several victories, he was seized with 
the plague at Vin-do-bo'na (now Vienna), and died in a 
few days (a. d. 180). With him perished the glory of the 
empire, for few of his successors merit the praise of either 
virtue or ability ; while the inroads of the barbarous nations 
who migrated from the wilds of the east and north, could 
only have been repelled by the most vigorous and best di- 
rected efforts. The death of Aurelius therefore marks the 
commencement of the " Decline of the Roman Empire." 

22. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, succeeded ; but 
he possessed none of the virtues of his father, having been 
spoiled in his youth by the vicious precepts and example 
of his abandoned mother Fau-sti'n-a. His debaucheries, 



20. What was the character of Marcus Aurelius ? What were the chief eventa 
of his reign ? What was the " Thundering Legion ?" 

21. What persecution occurred ? What people invaded the empire ? When and 
how did the death of Aurelius occur? What is said of this event? 

22. What was the character of Commodus ? How long did he reign ? 



114 THE KOMAN EMPIKE. [A. D. 193. 

wickedness, and cruelty were scarcely equalled by those of 
Nero and Caligula. Bloodthirsty, even in his sports, he 
roamed through the streets, wounding and slaying the un- 
suspecting passengers ; and his chief delight was to contend 
as a gladiator in the public arena. After several unsuc- 
cessful conspiracies had been formed against him, Com'nio- 
dus was at length strangled in his bed, in the 12th year of 
his detestable reign (a. d. 192). 

23. Pertinax (per'ti-nax), selected by the conspirators 
to succeed Commodus, had risen through almost eyery 
grade of society to the position of praefect of the city ; but 
it was with reluctance that he consented to assume the 
purple. The praetorian guards, however, -urged it, and the 
Senate gave their sanction ; but his severity of discipline 
soon displeased those who had caused his elevation, and 
marching into the palace, they cut off his head, and carried 
it into the camp, after he had reigned scarcely three months. 

24. The praetorians then offered the throne to the highest 
bidder; and Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, having 
made the richest offer to the soldiers, was declared emperor, 
the Senate being compelled to ratify the election. The 
legions of Syria, Illyria, and Britain, however, refused to 
confirm it, each army choosing its own monarch. Se-ve'rus, 
who commanded in Pannonia, marched directly to Eome ; 
and the praetorians having deserted Didius, the Senate de- 
creed that he should be deposed and put to death ; where- 
upon he was beheaded like a common criminal, after an 
uneasy reign of two months (a. d. 193). Severus was then 
declared emperor. 

25. Septimius Severus. — The first task performed by 
Severus was the conquest of his rivals; and this he accom- 
plished in about three years, one being defeated at Issus, 

23. Who Riceeeded Commodus ? What is related of him? What tercninated 
his reign ? 

24. 'What disgraceful act was committed by the praetorians? What led to the 
election of Severus ? 

25. What were the principal acts of this emperor? Where did he die? Bj 
whom was he succeeded ? 



A. ». 218.] THE EOMAI EMPIEE. 115 

where Alexander had contended for empire with Darius, 
and the other, in a great battle near Lyons. His authority 
being thus established, he ruled with great severity, over- 
turning even the forms of the republic, which had up to 
this time survived to remind the Eomans of their ancient 
liberty. He defeated the Parthians, and took Seleucia, 
Ctesiphon, and Babylon ; and, a war having broken out in 
Britain, he proceeded against the Caledonians, or Scots, 
drove them back into their fastnesses, and rebuilt and 
strengthened the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers. 
A short time afterward he died at York, in the 18th year 
of a very successful reign (a. d. 211), leaving the throne to 
his two sons Gar-a-cal'la and Ge'ta. 

26. Caracalla. — The first act of Caracalla was to cause 
his virtuous brother Geta to be assassinated, even after he 
had taken refuge in the arms of his mother ; and 20,000 
persons whom he accused of being friends of G-eta, shared 
his hapless fate. The principal part of his reign Caracalla 
spent in the provinces, and each one in turn was the scene 
of his rapine and cruelty. He ordered a general massacre 
of the citizens of Alexandria, on account of a lampoon 
which some one had published against him there. He was 
at length assassinated by Ma-cri'nus, the praetorian pre- 
fect* (a. d. 217). During this reign, all the free inhabit- 
ants of the empire were declared Eoman citizens. 

27. Macrinus, the murderer of Caracalla, was pro- 
claimed emperor by the troops, but retained the dignity 
only about a year, being defeated and slain near Antioch 
in an effort to reduce the rebellious armies of Syria, who 
had declared for He-li-o-gab 'a-lus, supposed to be the son 
of Caracalla. This battle gave the throne to the latter, who 
had been born at Em'e-sa, in Syri?», and was then only 
15 years of age (a. d. 218). 

* This office had become, under Severus, the principal one in the empire, being next to that ol 
the eniperor himself. 

26. What wicked acts did Caracalla commit? What ended his reign? 

27. What is said of Macrinus ? By whom was he succeeded ? 



116 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A.D.235. 

28. Heliogabalus. — This emperor derived his name 
(Heliogabalus or M-a-gab' a-lus) from his office as high- 
priest of the sun (called He-li-o-ga'tal in Syria) ; and he 
attempted to introduce into Eome the effeminate manners 
and superstitious idolatry of the East. He built a temple 
to the Sun on the Palatine Hill, and celebrated the sacri- 
fices of the god with the utmost expense and solemnity. 
After three years spent in the most shocking vices, among 
which gluttony was the most conspicuous, he was massa- 
cred by the Praetorians, and thrown into the Tiber (a. d. 
222). 

29. Alexander Severus, cousin of the preceding em- 
peror, succeeded him. He was a virtuous young man, of a 
mild and benevolent disposition, and very fond of learning ; 
and his government was all that could have been expected 
from so excellent a prince. In the fourth year of his reign, 
the Parthian empire was overturned by a revolt of the Per- 
sians under Ard-e-shir' , the founder of the famous dynasty 
of the Sas-san'i-des, who governed Persia for more than 
four centuries. Ardeshir attempted to extend his dominion 
to the Mediterranean, but was defeated by Alexander Seve- 
rus in several obstinate engagements. The emperor, a short 
time afterward, marched against the Germans ; but was as- 
sassinated (a. d. 235) by some of his troops, who declared 
in favor of their general, Max'i-min, a soldier of fortune, 
of gigantic stature and enormous strength, who had risen 
from the condition of a Thracian peasant to the chief com- 
mand of the army. 

30. Maximin, though an able general, showed in his 
government the ferocity of a brutal savage, putting to 
death with the most horrid cruelty all whom he suspected 
of the least disaffection. After a reign of three years, 
. 

28. What is related of Heliogabalus ? Why was he so called ? 

29. What was the character of Alexander Severus ? What revolution occurred 
in the East ? How did this reign end ? Who succeeded Alexander ? 

30. What was the character of Maximin? How and when did his reign end? 
By whom was he succeeded ? 



A. D. 251.] THE KOMA^ EMPIEE. 117 

during which he gained several yictories oyer the barba- 
rians, an insurrection breaking out in Italy, he marched 
from his camp on the Danube to suppress it; but was slain 
in his tent by the Praetorian guards (a. d. 238). He was 
succeeded by two distinguished senators (Max'i-mus and 
Bal-M'?ius), whom the senate had chosen as emperors. 
These were soon afterward put to death in a mutiny of the 
Praetorians ; and the purple was assumed by Gor'di-an, a 
youth whom the army had compelled the senate to associ- 
ate as colleague with their own chosen emperors. 

31. Gordian reigned with distinction and prosperity. 
He gained great yictories oyer the Persians, under their 
king Sa'por, driving them out of Syria, and compelling 
them to abandon Mesopotamia ; but he was soon afterward 
assassinated in a mutiny of the army, fomented by Philip, 
an officer of the guards, who thus became his successor 
(a. d. 244). Philip reigned about fiye years, at the end of 
which he was defeated and slain in an insurrection of the 
Pannonian army under De'cius (a. d. 249). 

32. Deems. — The reign of this emperor is remarkable 
for the dreadful persecution which he instituted against 
the Christians, who, throughout the empire, were dragged 
to execution, and subjected to the most horrid cruelties. 
There was also a great invasion of the Goths, a barbarous 
people from Scandinayia, who, haying crossed the Danube, 
passed into Moesia and Thrace. Phil-ip-pop 'o-lis was taken 
by storm, and 100,000 persons are said to haye been massa- 
cred. They also, a short time afterward, defeated the Eo- 
man army under Decius, in a terrific conflict in which the 
emperor himself perished (a. d. 251). Decius exhibited the 
character of a brave and active general and an accomplished 
monarch. 

33. Valerian. — The two immediate successors of Decius 

31. What were the chief events of Gordian's reign? By whom was he suc- 
ceeded ? Who was the successor of Philip ? 

32. For what is the reign of Decius remarkahle ? What invasion occurred I 
How and when did the death of Decius occur ? 



118 THE ifOMAN" EMPIRE. [A. I>. 260. 

held the throne only abont two years, when Va-le'ri-an, 
who commanded the armies of Gaul and Germany, assumed 
the purple. He was about sixty years of age, of noble birth, 
unblemished integrity, great talents, and in every respect 
worthy of reigning. In an expedition against the Persians 
he was defeated and taken prisoner (a. d. 260) ; and Sapor, 
the Persian monarch, took advantage of this victory to 
overrun Syria, Oilicia, and Cappadocia. The city of An- 
tioch was surprised and pillaged, and its inhabitants put to 
the sword, or carried away into captivity. Valerian, it is 
said, was treated with great indignity and cruelty by the 
Persian monarch. He was compelled for seven years to 
bow himself down so as to serve as a stepping-stone to Sa- 
por when he mounted his horse; and, on his death, his 
skin stuffed in the form of a human figure, and dyed with 
scarlet, was preserved in the temple of Persia. 

34. Gallienus, the son of Valerian, had been associated 
in the government with his father ; and after his defeat, 
continued to reign, making no effort to cause his father's 
release, but rather seeming to rejoice in the disaster which 
freed him from the authority of so strict a censor. At the 
time of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the 
captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. The 
Germans invaded Italy, but were repulsed by the emperor, 
who then gave himself up to indolent amusements. This 
inactivity caused a number of usurpers to start up in 
various parts of the empire and claim the throne. 

35. These usurpers have been called the Thirty Tyrants, 
but their real number was nineteen. Many of them had 
been the lieutenants of Valerian, and were disgusted with 
the imbecility of his son, especially at a time of so much 

33. Who were the successors of Decius ? What is said of Valerian ? By whom 
was he defeated ? How was he treated by Sapor ? What countries were overrun 
"by the Persians ? What city was taken ? 

34:. What is related of Gallienus ? What invasions occurred ? 

35. Who were called the " Thirty Tyrants ?" What is said of Odenatus and 
Palmyra ? Of Zenobia ? What became of the other pretenders ? When and how 
did the reign of Gallienus end ? 



A.D. 270.] THE ROMAX EMPIRE. 119 

public peril and disaster. Among them was O-den-a'tus, a 
prince of Palmyra,* which had become an independent 
city, a short time after the death of the emperor Gordian, 
haying revolted from the Eomans on account of the exac- 
tions of the proconsul. After the defeat of Valerian, 
Odenatus marched against the Persians ; and, haying de- 
feated them with great loss, recovered Mesopotamia. For 
these services Gal-U-e'nus and the senate conferred on him 
and his famous queen, Ze-no'bi-a, the government of the 
East; thus converting a rival into a friend and partner. 
This great man was soon after murdered by some of his 
own family, and Zenobia succeeded him in the government. 
The other pretenders to the purple also died a violent 
death, perishing either in battle or by assassination. Gal- 
lienus was himself murdered while besieging one of his 
rivals in Milan (a. d. 268). 

36. Claudius, a great general, and a virtuous and pa- 
triotic monarch, succeeded him. He gained a signal vic- 
tory over the Goths in Mcesia, destroying one of the 
mightiest armaments that ever invaded the empire; but 
he was prematurely arrested in his career of glory by a dis- 
ease which he caught in Pannonia (a. d. 270). He named 
Au-re'U-an, one of his generals, as his successor. 

37. Aurelian. — This emperor's short reign was filled 
with the. most momentous events. The Goths and the 
Van' dais (also a Gothic tribe) renewed their invasions, and 
were encountered with indecisive results by Aurelian, who 
finally made a peace with them, relinquishing to them the 
great province of Dacia, most of the inhabitants of which 
removed to the south side of the Danube (a. d. 270). He 



* Palmyra, or Tadmor, was founded by Solomon in an oasis in the Syrian desert, about 140 
miles east of Damascus ; and being on the great route to Persia and India, it became the rest- 
ing-place of the caravans, and was soon greatly enlarged, and enriched with all the treasures 
of the East. 

36. What was the character of Claudius? What victory did he gain? Whc 
succeeded him ? 

37. What terms did Aurelian make with the Goths and Vandals ? What harba 
rous tribe did he defeat ? 



120 THE ROMAS" EMPIRE. [A. I>. 284. 

next defeated the Al-le-man'i, a German tribe, who had in- 
vaded Italy and were threatening Eome itself, which Aure- 
lian cansed to be protected by new fortifications. Various 
parts of the empire were still held by usurpers, some of 
them women, among whom was Zenobia, queen of Palmyra 
and several provinces of the East. 

38. This queen was esteemed the most lovely and accom- 
plished of her sex, having been instructed by the celebrated 
scholar and critic, Lon-gi'nus. After the death of Odena- 
tus, she filled the throne of Palmyra for five years ; but 
claiming an independent sovereignty, she gave offence to 
Aurelian, who, having defeated her forces in two great 
battles, besieged and took her capital, Palmyra. Zenobia 
was made a captive to grace the triumph of her conqueror, 
and her favorite minister Longinus was executed (a. d. 
273). In an expedition against the Persians, Aurelian was 
assassinated by one of his generals (a. d. 275). 

39. Tacitus, an aged senator, succeeded, and during a 
brief reign of six months, repelled an attempted invasion 
by the Scythians. Civil war followed between the generals 
who were competitors for the throne, and it lasted until 
A. d. 285, when Di-o-cle'tian, vanquishing his rival Ca-ri'- 
nu8, in Moesia, obtained full possession of the empire. 

40. Diocletian was a native of Dalmatia, and his 
parents were slaves ; but he had been promoted succes- 
sively to the offices of provincial governor, consul, and 
praetorian prefect. He was proclaimed emperor by the 
army in A. D. 284; and the year after, feeling that the 
extent of the empire, and the troubles in which it was in- 
volved, were too vast for any single mind, he made Max- 
im' i-an, a brave but unlettered soldier, his colleague. After 
a few years, each emperor also took an associate, or Ccesar, 

38. What is said of Zenobia? What war did Aurelian wage against her ? With 
what result ? When and how did this reign end ? 

39. What is said of his successor ? What followed ? 

40. What was the previous history of Diocletian ? What colleagues were 
taken ? 



A. ». 323.] THE KOMAN EMPIEE. 121 

and the empire was divided among the four rulers. In this 
way the barbarians were kept in check, and general tran- 
quillity was preserved. 

41. During this reign the Persians were defeated by 
Ga-le'ri-us, one of the Caesars ; and Mesopotamia, together 
with several districts beyond the Tigris, was subdued. 
There also occurred the last great persecution of the Chris- 
tians, from which fact the era of the commencement of 
Diocletian's reign (a. d. 284) is called, in the history of the 
Church, the " Era of Martyrs." In 305 A. d. Diocletian 
took the extraordinary resolution to resign the empire, and 
obliged Maximian to do the same. The Caesars, Galerius 
and Con-stan'tius, then became emperors, choosing in their 
turn Caesars to succeed them. Diocletian retired to Sa-Io'- 
na, in Dalmatia, and spent the remainder of his life in the 
quiet pursuits of agriculture ; and so well satisfied was he 
with the change, that when Maximian afterward urged 
him to resume the imperial dignity, he replied, " I wish 
you would come to Salona and see the cabbages I have 
planted; for having once visited my garden, you would 
never again mention to me the name of empire." 

42. Constantine. — Constantius having died at York, 
in Britain, his son Con' stan-tine was saluted emperor by 
the army ; but Galerius and the two Caesars refused to 
ratify the election, and civil war ensued, in which there 
were no less than six competitors for the throne, among 
them the former emperor, Maximian, and his son Max-en' - 
tins. Constantine, after eighteen years of war, finally 
prevailed over all his rivals, and became sole monarch of 
the empire (a. d. 323). During this conflict, while march- 
ing against Maxentius, he saw, it is said, in the heavens a 
luminous cross, bearing the inscription, in Greek, " Con- 
quer by this ;" and under the standard of the cross, 

41. Whom did Galerius defeat? What is meant by the "era of martyrs" ? 
What extraordinary resolution did Diocletian adopt ? Was he satisfied with the 
change ? 

42. How did Constantine acquire the empire ? What led to his conversion ? 

6 



122 THE ROMAN" EMPIKE. [A. D. 361. 

having defeated Maxentius, lie became a convert to Chris- 
tianity. 

43. In order that his residence might be nearer the cen- 
tre of his dominions, he removed the capitol from Eome 
to Byzantium, which he embellished with magnificent 
churches, palaces, and other edifices ; while gardens, parks, 
and private walks exhibited all the refinements of eastern 
luxury. The city from him received the name of Constan- 
tinople. During this reign (a. d. 325), the celebrated 
council of Nice (in Bithynia) was held, in which the doc- 
trines of the Church were more clearly defined. Constan- 
tine repulsed the Goths and Sarmatians, who invaded 
Thrace (a. d. 332). His death occurred five years later, in 
the sixty-fifth year of his age (a. d. 337). 

44. The three sons of Constantine succeeded him, but 
quarrelled among themselves, and a terrible civil war en- 
sued. This lasted until 353, when Oo?istantius, after 
gaining several great victories over his rival Mag-nen'tius, 
his brothers having been previously slain, became sole and 
undisputed master of the throne. His cousin, Ju'li-an, 
was taken as his colleague ; but afterward, by his victories 
over the Germans and other barbarous nations, he excited 
the jealousy of the emperor, who, to destroy the influence of 
the Caesar, recalled his best legions ; but they refused to 
obey, and saluted Julian as emperor. Preparations for 
civil war immediately commenced ; but the death of Con- 
stantius terminated the strife (a. d. 361), and raised Julian 
to the throne. 

45. Julian the Apostate. — This emperor had been 
educated in Athens, and had imbibed a great fondness for 
the pagan philosophy and religion. On his accession, 
therefore, he determined to overthrow Christianity, and 

43. What city did he make hi? capitol? What council was held? Who wero 
repulsed ? When did his reign end ? 

44. What events followed the death of Constantine ? How did Julian hecome 
emperor ? 

45. Why was Julian styled "the Apostate" ? What did he attempt ? How was 
it defeated ? Where was he killed ? 



A. D. 388.] THE KOMAN EMPIRE. 123 

restore the ancient faitli and worship ; and hence he has been 
called " the Apostate." To disprove the prophecy of Christ, 
he attempted to rebnild the temple at Jerusalem ; but the 
design, it is said, was frustrated by miracle, fire-balls 
breaking out from the foundation and driving the work- 
men away, so that .tjiey were obliged to abandon the 
attempt. Julian was afterward killed in a disastrous ex- 
pedition against the Persians, after a reign of sixteen 
months (a. d. 363). 

48. Jovian, his successor, restored Christianity, but 
died after a reign of seven months. Valentinian, com- 
mander of the guards, succeeded, and divided the empire, 
giving to his brother Valens the government of the east, 
while he retained that of the west, making Mil'an his 
capital. The barbarous nations of the north still con- 
tinued their incursions. The G-oths, pressed in their rear 
by the more- savage Huns,* entreated and obtained permis- 
sion to settle on the south bank of the Danube, but were 
afterward driven into revolt by the treachery of a Roman 
governor. Valens attempting to subdue them, was de- 
feated and slain in a great battle, near Adrianople; G-ra- 
tian, who had succeeded Valentinian, arriving too late to 
prevent the disaster (a. d. 378). The empire of the east 
was then given to Theodosius (a. d. 379),who subdued 
the Goths, and received great numbers of them into the 
Roman armies. 

47. Theodosius the Great. After the death of his 
associates Gratian and Valentinian II., and the defeat of 
the different rivals who attempted to obtain the throne, 
Theodosius became sole monarch (a. d. 388). He ruled 
with so much wisdom and ability that he has been called 

* The Huns were a warlike tribe, of the Mongolian race, of uncouth and hideous aspect and 
dreadful ferocity. They emigrated from Central Asia. 



46. What is said of Jovian? How was the empire divided by Valentinian ? 
Where were the Goths permitted to settle ? Why ? What was the consequence ? 
Who succeeded Valens ? What was done by Theodosius ? 

47. When did Theodosius become sole monarch? Why called the Chxat? 
What were the prominent events of his reign ? How did he divide the empire ? 



124 THE EOMAK EMPIRE. [A. ». 403. 

the Great The complete overthrow of Paganism and the 
establishment of Christianity in the Eoman dominions, as 
well as the repulse of the barbarians from every part of the 
frontier, were striking events of this reign, — the last that 
reflected any credit upon the Eoman name. Theodosius at 
his death divided the empire between his two sons, Ho-no'- 
ri-us being placed on the throne of the West, and Ar-ca'di-us 
on that of the East (a. d. 395). 

48. Honorius. — This reign had scarcely commenced, 
when the Goths, indignant that their subsidy had not been 
paid, invaded Greece under the renowned leader ATa-ric, 
and devastated the whole country from Thermopylae to 
Sparta. Stil'i-clw, the brave and talented minister of Ho- 
norius, by a series of masterly movements, drove out the 
barbarians ; but the pusillanimous Arcadius made a dis- 
graceful treaty with Alaric, which put an end to the cam- 
paign. Alaric soon after invaded Italy, and made a rapid 
march for Eome ; but he was overtaken near Ve-ro'na and 
entirely defeated by Stilicho (a. d. 403). His departure 
from Italy was, however, purchased by the weak and timid 
Honorius by the payment of a large pension. 

49. During the next five years, Stilicho gained several 
important victories over the barbarians ; but the unworthy 
emperor, tired of his influence and jealous of his great 
fame, treacherously caused him to be put to death, appoint- 
ing in his stead a minister of neither capacity nor worth. 
The latter having caused a massacre of the families of the 
barbarians throughout Italy, the Gothic soldiers in the 
Eoman army revolted and joined the standard of Alaric, 
who immediately invaded Italy and marched to Eome. The 
city was soon compelled by famine to surrender, and Ho- 
norius, who held his court at Eavenna, refusing to treat for 

48. What invasion took place during the reign of Honorius ? What was done 
by Stilicho ? How was Alaric induced to leave Italy ? 

49. What other victories were gained by Stilicho ? What were the circum- 
stances of his death? What caused another invasion by Alaric? What is said 
of the pillage of Eome ? Of the death of Alaric ? 



A. ». 450.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 125 

peace, the ancient capital was given up to pillage (a. d, 
410). The devastation and massacre were frightful ; but 
Alaric, professing Christianity, spared the churches ; and, 
unwilling*utterly to destroy the city which had been the 
world's mistress, the sixth day after its capture he withdrew 
his forces. He then prepared to invade Sicily, but was seized 
with a mortal disease ; and his remains were buried beneath 
the bed of a small stream, in the southern part of Italy. 

50. A-dol'phus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded to 
the sovereignty of the Goths; and having married Pla- 
cid'i-a, the sister of Honorius, he made peace with the Ro- 
mans. He then retired into Spain, and founded in that 
country the Kingdom of the Vis'i-goths.* About the same 
time the Vandals settled in the central and southern parts 
of Spain ; and the Sue'vl and other German tribes, in the 
northwestern part. Under the successors of Adolphus, the 
Vandals were expelled (a. d. 427), the other nations sub- 
dued, and the Gothic monarchy extended over a large part 
of Gaul as well as Spain. The Vandals, crossing into Africa, 
made themselves masters of the northern part of that 
country. About this time also the Franks, Burgiindians, 
and other barbarous tribes invaded Gaul. 

51. Valentinian III. — After a disgraceful reign of 
twenty-eight years Honorius died (a. d. 423), and was suc- 
ceeded by Valentinian III., a weak prince, under the 
guardianship of his mother Placidia, who ruled in his 
name for twenty-five years. During this period the Huns, 
under their terrible leader At'ti-la, having defeated several 
Roman armies, ravaged the Eastern Empire from the 
Euxine to the Adriatic (a. d. 441-450). After extorting 
immense treasures from the Emperor of the East, as the 

* The Goths were divided into two portions, those of the east being called the Ostro-gotTis, and 
those of the west the Visigoths. 



50. Who succeeded Alaric? Why did he make peace with the Romans? 
Whither did he retire ? What kingdoms were founded in Spain ? Whither did 
the Vandals retire ? Who invaded Gaul ahout this time ? 

51. How long did Valentinian reign? By whom was he succeeded ? Who was 
Attila, and what is related of him ? By whom was he defeated ? 



126 THE EOMAN" EMPIKE. [A. D. 455. 

price of peace, Attila formed an alliance with the Franks, 
and marched into Gaul, where he was met and defeated 
with terrible slaughter by the united forces of the Romans 
and Goths, the former commanded by A-e'tius, the greatest 
general of his age, and called by some " the last of the Ro- 
mans " (a. d. 451). 

52. Notwithstanding this great defeat, Attila the next 
year invaded Italy, and committed the most dreadful 
devastations, boasting that " the grass never grew on the 
spot where his horse had trod." Many of the most 
nourishing cities were taken and utterly destroyed. The 
people of the Venetian territory (the Ven'e-tt) took refuge in 
the neighboring islands ; and thus was founded a maritime 
republic, which afterward became the great emporium of 
Europe. The entreaties of Leo, Bishop of Rome, and the 
payment of an immense sum, finally induced Attila to de- 
part from Italy; and the next year (a. d. 453) his death 
relieved the empire from the terror of his arms. Aetius, in 
the year following, was basely murdered by order of Valen- 
tinian ; and the next year the emperor himself was assas- 
sinated in revenge for the crime (a. d. 455). This was done 
at the instigation of a wealthy senator named Pe-tro'ni-us 
Max'i-mus. 

53. Maximus was then proclaimed emperor; but 
Eu-dox'i-a, the widow of Valentinian, implored the aid of 
Oen'se-ric, king of the Vandals, to avenge his death. "With 
a numerous fleet he set sail from Carthage, his capital ; and, 
disembarking at Ostia, marched to Rome,- which became a 
prey to the violence of his followers. The pillage of the 
city lasted fourteen days and nights ; and the vessels of the 
Vandals and Moors were laden with the spoils of temples 
and palaces (a. d. 455). During the next twenty-one years 

52. What ravages were committed by Attila in Italy? Where did the Veneti, 
or Venetians, take refuse ? When did the death of Attila occur ? Of Aetius ? 
How did the reign of Valentinian end, and when ? 

53. By whom were the Vandals called into Italy, and why? What city waa 
sacked ? How many emperors reigned during the next twenty-one years ? Who 
was the last ? Who was Orestes ? 



A. D. 476.] THE ROMAIC EMPIRE. 127 

eight emperors successively assumed tlie purple, the last of 
whom was Romulus, the sou of O-res'tes, a Paunouian chief, 
who had beeu iu the service of Attila, but afterward trans- 
ferred his allegiance to the emperors of the West. 

54. Romulus Augustulus — Odoacer. The barba- 
rian mercenaries, demanding from Orestes a third part or 
Italy and being refused, revolted, and chose Ocl-o-a'cer, 
chief of a G-othic tribe called the Heruli, as their leader. 
Pavia was taken by storm ; and Orestes having been made 
prisoner, was put to death. Odoacer compelled Eomulus 
(surnamedin derision Au-gus'tu-lus*) to resign the purple ; 
and abolishing the title and office of Emperor of the West, 
he proclaimed himself King of Italy (a. d. 476). Thus ter- 
minated the western division of the Great Eoman Empire. 
The eastern division continued to exist for nearly one 
thousand years. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

B. C. 

31. Augustus (I). Army of Varus destroyed (a. d. 10). Virgil, Livy 
Ovid, and Horace. 
4. Birth of our Saviour. 

A. D. 

14. Tiberius (II). Germanicus. Hermann. The wicked Sejanus. 

33. Crucifixion of our Saviour. 

37. Caligula (III). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. 

41. Claudius (IV). Caractacus. Wicked Messalina and Agrippina. 

54. Nero (V). Seneca. Lucan. Martyrdom of St. Paul. Revolt of 

the Jews. 
GS. Galba (VI). Reign of seven months. 
69. Otho (VII). Reign of three months. 
09. Vitellius (VIII). Reign of eight months. [tilian. Pliny. 

69. Vespasian (IX). Colosseum commenced. Joseplius. Quin- 

70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 

79. Titus (X). Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Coles- 
seum finished. 

* Augustulus means, in Latfn, the Little Augustus. 



54. What led to the death of Orestes? How and when did the Western Em- 
pire end ? 



12S THE KOMAN" EMPIRE. 

81. Domitian (XI). Wars with the Dacians. Conquest of Britain 

by Agricola. 
96. Nerva (XII). Reign of sixteen months. 
98. Trajan (XIII). Conquest of the Dacians. Victories in th6 

East. 
117. Adrian (XIV). General survey of the Empire. Wall built in 

Britain. Jews revolt and are subdued. 
188. Antoninus Pius (XV). 
161. Marcus Aurelius Antonenus (XVI). War with the Parthi- 

ans and Germans. Persecution of the Christians. 
180. Commodus (XVII). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. 

192. Pertlnax (XVIII). Reign of about three months. Empire 

sold by auction. 

193. Dedius Julianus (XIX). Reign of two months. 

193. Septimius Severus (XX). Abolishes the forms of the republic. 
Defeat of the Parthians. 

211. Caracalla (XXI). Murders his brother Geta. Dreadful mas- 
sacre at Alexandria. 

217. Macrinus (XXII). Defeated and slain near Antioch. 

218. Heliogabalus (XXIII). " Priest of the Sun." Temple to the 

Sun built in Rome. 

222. Alexander Severds (XXIV). Foundation of the Second Per- 
sian Empire. 

235. Maximin (XXV). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. Victories 
0"ver the barbarians. 

238. Gordian, the Third (XXIX). Succeeds the two Gordians 
(XXVI and XXVII) who had been declared emperors by the 
army, and Maximus and Balbinus (XXVIII) elected by the 
Senate to rule jointly. 

244. PmLiP (XXX). Insurrection of the army under Decius. 

249. Decius (XXXI). Dreadful persecution (seventh) of the Chris- 
tians. Gothic invasion. 

251. Death of Decius. Brief reigns of Gallus and ^Emilianus. 

254. Valerian (XXXIV). Defeated and taken prisoner by the Per- 
sians. 

260. Gallienus (XXXV). The empire invaded on all sides by 
the barbarians. The " Thirty Tyrants." Odenatus and Ze- 
nobia. 

268. Claudius (XXXIV). Defeats the Goths in Moesia. 

270. Aurelian (XXXVII). Dacia given up to the Goths. Zenobia 
defeated and taken prisoner. 

275. Tacitus (XXXVIII). Civil war ; ended by Diocletian. 



THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. 129 



284. Diocletian (XLIII). Subdues his four rivals, each of whom 
had been declared emperor, and takes Maximian as his col- 
league. Empire divided among the two emperors* and the 
two Caesars. Last persecution (tenth) of the Christians. 

305. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to the Caesars, Gale- 

rius and Constantius. 

306. Constantlne (XLY). Six competitors for the throne. Max- 

entius defeated. 

323. Constantine sole and undisputed emperor. Christianity estab- 
lished. Capital removed to Byzantium. 

325. Council of Mce. 

337. Constantine II., Constantius, and Constans (XL VI), three 
emperors. Civil war. 

353. Constantius sole emperor. Victories over the Germans by 
Julian. 

361. Julian the Apostate (XL VII). Re-establishes Paganism. 
Defeated and slain by the Persians. 

363. Jovian (XL VIII). Christianity restored. Reign of seven 

months. 

364. Valentinian I. (XLIX). Empire divided ; Valens emperor of 

the East. 
375. Gratian (L). Battle of Adrianople; Valens defeated and slain 

by the Goths. Theodosius emperor of the East. 
383. Valentinian II. (LI). Defeat of the Goths by Theodosius. 
388. Theodosius the Great (LII). Defeats his rivals, Maximus 

and Eugenius. Complete establishment of Christianity. Final 

division of the Empire. 
395. Honorius (LIII). Invasion of Greece and Italy by Alaric. 

Stilicho. 
410. Rome pillaged by the Goths under Alaric. 
412. Kingdom of the Vandals founded in Spain. 
415. Kingdom of the Visigoths founded in Spain and Gaul. 
420. The Franks, Burgundians, &c, invade Gaul. 
423. Valentinian III. (LIV). The Huns under Attila invade the 

Empire. 
45'j . Defeat of Attila in Gaul by Aetius. 
452. Ravage of Italy by Attila. Venice founded. 

454. Death of Aetius, the " Last of the Romans." 

455. Maximus (LV). Sack of Rome by the Vandals. 

475. Romulus Augustulus (LXIII). Last emperor of the West. 

476. Odoacer founds the Kingdom of Italy. 



130 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. What were the most important events of the reign of Augustus ? 104-105 

2. Describe the Augustan age of Roman literature , 105 

3. Give an account of Tiberius and the principal events of his reign 105-106 

4. Describe the character of Caligula 106 

5. What were the principal events of the reign of Claudius ? 106-107 

6 . Describe the character of Nero, and his reign 107-108 

7. Give a sketch of the character of Galba, Qtho, and Vitellius 108-109 

8. What events occurred during the reigns of Vespasian and Titus ? 109-110 

9. Describe the character of Domitian Ill 

10. Name the " five good Emperors," and state the important events of 

their reigns 111-113 

11. Describe the character and conduct of Commodus 113-114 

12. What events led to the accession of Septimius Severus ? 114 

13. What were the most important events of his reign ? 114-115 

14. Give an account of the reign of Caracalla 115 

15. In what way did Macrinus acquire the throne ? 115 

16. Give an account of Heliogabalus and his reign 116 

17. What important events occurred during the reign of Alexander Severus ? 116 

18. Name the four immediate successors of Severus, and describe their reigns 116-117 

19. Describe the character and reign of Decius 117 

20. How did Valerian acquire the throne, and how did he lose it ? 118 

21. Give an account of Gallienus and the " Thirty Tyrants" 118-119 

22. Give an account of Zenobia 120 

23. How did Diocletian acquire the throne ? . 120 

24. What were the most interesting events of his reign ? 120-121 

25. In what way did Constantine obtain the throne ? 121 

26. Give an account of the reign of Constantine 122 

27. Describe the character and reign of Julian the Apostate 122-123 

28. What led to the accession of Theodosius the Great ? 123 

29. What were the chief events of bis reign ? , 124 

30. What important events occurred during the reign of Honorius ? 124-125 

31. What were the chief events of the reign of Valentinian IH. ? 125-126 

32. What emperors occupied the throne after this reign ? 126-127 

33. In what reigns were there persecutions of the Christians ? 107-110-112-113-117-121 

34. During whose reign was Jerusalem taken ? 109 

35. During whose reigns were the Britons defeated and subdued ? 107-110 

36. When and how were Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed ? 110 

37. Give an account of Plutarch, the historian Ill 

38. By what emperors were the Parthians defeated, and how was their 

empire destroyed ? 111-115-116 

39. Who were the Sassanides, and how long did they reign ? 116 

40. Give an account of the Goths and their invasions 119-122-123-124-125 

41. Give an account of the invasions of the Vandals 119-125-126 

42. Give an account of the invasions of the Huns 123-125-126 

43. Who was Stilicho, and what victories did he gain ? 124 

44. Who was Aetius, and what victory did he gain ? 126 

45. Give a brief account of Alaric, Attila, and Genseric 124-125-126 

46. What were the chief events of the first century A. D. ? 127-128 

47. Relate the principal events of the second century 128 

48. Also of the third, fourth, and fifth centuries 128-129 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 5. 




A. ». 408.] THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. 131 



PART II. 

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 



section i. 
The Eastern Empire. 

Extending from the Accession of Arcadius (395 A. d.), to the taking of 
Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. 

1. The Eastern or Byz'an-tine Empire, or, as it is some- 
times called, the Greek Empire, was founded in 395 A. d., 
when Theodosius, at his death, divided the Eoman Empire 
between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, assigning to 
the latter all the pQrtion lying between the Adriatic Sea 
and the Tigris Kiver. Arcadius was a weak monarch, who 
left the administration of the government to ambitious 
and corrupt ministers, while he lived in oriental luxury, 
indifferent to his duties and careless of the condition of his 
subjects. During his reign nourished the virtuous and 
eloquent Clirys'os-tom,* archbishop of Constantinople, who 
was persecuted by the empress Eu-dox'i-a, on account of 
his firm adherence to the orthodox Christian faith. Arca- 
dius died in 408. 

2. The successor of Arcadius was Theodosius II, during 

* Chrysostom is a Greek word which means golden-mouth. 



Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 5.) How far did the kingdom of 
the Ostrogoths extend toward the north ? What people occupied Italy at the 
commencement of Justinian's reign? What people east of the Rhone? What 
kingdom comprehended France and a part of Germany? What people farther 
east, at the sources of the Danube ? What races had settled on the Danube ? 
What others farther to the north ? What kingdom occupied Spain ? What king- 
dom in the north of Africa ? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at that 
period? What empire bordered it on the east? 

1. When and how was the Eastern Empire founded? What was its extent? 
What is said of Arcadius ? Who nourished during his reign ? 

2. Who succeeded Arcadius ? What is said of the Huns ? Of Pulcheria ? 



132 THE EASTEEN EMPIEE. [A. ». 534 

whose reign the Huns under Attila invaded the empire ; 
and, having in three battles vanquished the armies sent to 
oppose them, committed the most dreadful and widespread 
ravages. They dictated terms of peace in the suburbs of 
Constantinople, exacting the enormous annual tribute of 
2,100 pounds of gold, and the immediate payment of 6,000 
pounds. Theodosius was only the nominal sovereign, the 
government being really administered by his sister Pul- 
che'?°i-a, who, after his death, in 450, was proclaimed em- 
press, and reigned about three years. 

3. During the reign of Ze'no (the third from Pulcheria), 
Od-o-a'cer having made himself master of Italy, and de- 
posed the last emperor, Augustulus, ruled the country for 
14 years, under the title of King of Italy. His reign was 
terminated by an invasion of the Ostrogoths under The- 
od'o-ric (a. d. 493), who reigned over Italy 33 years, with 
all the wisdom and moderation of a virtuous and enlight- 
ened prince. A large part of the Gothic nation had been 
transported into Italy, and after its conquest, one-third of 
all the lands were divided among the followers of Theoclo- 
ric ; and yet, such was the efficiency of his government, 
that peace and prosperity were everywhere prevalent, and 
it was a common saying, " that a purse of gold might be 
safely left in the fields." 

4. The famous reign of Jus-tin' i-an over the empire of 
the East, commenced in 527 A. d., and lasted 38 years. It 
is remarkable for the code of laws which the emperor 
caused to be framed, and for the victories of Bel-i-sa'ri-us 
and Nar'ses, the two greatest generals of the age. The 
former defeated the Vandals, in Africa, in two great bat- 
tles, and recovered the provinces which they had subdued 
(a. d. 534). He next reduced Sicily, and, crossing into 

3. During whose reign did Odoacer conquer Italy? How and when was Odoa- 
cer's reign terminated? What was the length of Theodoric's reign? What was 
its character ? 

4. When did the emperor Justinian's reign begin ? What was its length ? For 
what was it remarkable ? What conquests were made by Belisarius ? 



A. I>. 565.] THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. 133 

Italy, defeated the Goths and captured their capital, Ra- 
ven 'na (539 A. D.). In 544 A. D., the barbarians having, 
under their king Tot'i-la, again invaded and reconquered 
Italy, Belisarius waged war against them for five years, but 
with very inadequate forces, and through the jealousy and 
unjust suspicions of Justinian, was finally recalled. 

5. After several years of retirement, Belisarius, in his old 
age, was called upon to defend Constantinople against the 
Bul-ga'ri-ans and Sla-vo'ni-ans,* who, after committing 
frightful ravages in various parts of the empire, threatened 
Constantinople. The aged hero, by his skill and valor, 
entirely defeated these fierce barbarians; but four years 
afterward, notwithstanding his great services, he was un- 
justly imprisoned by the emperor on a charge of treason. 
He was subsequently acquitted, and died in 565. 

6. Meanwhile, the war had been continued against the 
Goths in Italy. Rome, which had been taken by Totila, 
and its entire destruction threatened, was recaptured by 
ISTarses, and the Goths defeated with great slaughter, their 
king, Totila, being slain (a. d. 552). After he had gained 
another great victory over the Goths the next year, and 
defeated the Franks and other German tribes who had 
ravaged the peninsula from the Alps to Otranto, Karses 
entered Rome as a conqueror, and was afterward appointed 
by Justinian Exarch of Italy. He fixed his court at Ra- 
venna, and continued to govern the country till the death 
of Justinian, in 565, by whose successor he was recalled. 
He died in Rome a short time afterward, at the age, it is 
said, of 95. 

7. During the reign of Justinian, the A-vars', a race sim- 

* The Bulgarians were the remains of the Huns who, after the death of Attila, retreated to 
the Euxine and the lake Mseotis. The Slavonians were a barbarous race from the plains of Rus- 
sia, who afterward settled in the vicinity of the Baltic Sea. 



5. Who were the Bulgarians and Slavonians ? (See note.) By whom were they 
defeated ? What further is said of Belisarius ? 

6. What victories were gained hy Narses ? To what office was he appointed ? 
How long did he rule Italy ? What was his capital ? When did his death occur 5 

7. What is said of the Avars ? The Lombards ? The Gepidse ? 



134 THE EASTEEN" EMPIRE. [A. H. 622. 

ilar in origin to the Huns, fleeing from the Turks, who 
lived at that time near the Altai Mountains, crossed the 
Tan'a-is and Bo-rys'the-nes (Don and Dnieper rivers), and 
advanced into Poland and Germany. They then passed to 
the Danube, and, subduing the Bulgarians, took possession 
of the country which the latter had occupied (Dacia). This 
period is also noted for the passage to the south of the 
Lombards,* who had been invited by the emperor to enter 
Noricum and Pannonia, in order to check the advance of 
another barbarous race called the Gep'i-dce. These, after a 
thirty years' war, were almost entirely exterminated by the 
Lombards, under Al'bo-in, assisted by the Avars, the latter 
of whom continued to occupy Dacia, and some of the adja- 
cent countries, for more than two centuries. 

8. In the reign of Justin II, the successor of Justinian, 
the Lombards, under Alboin, entered Italy (a. d. 568), 
being invited, as it is said, by Narses, in revenge for the 
affront of his recall. In a short time they conquered the 
whole country, except a small portion which continued, 
under the name of the Exarchate of Ravenna, in possession 
of the Eastern Empire. The kingdom of the Lombards in 
Italy lasted more than two centuries, their seat of govern- 
ment being Pa'via. The famous iron crown of the Lom- 
bards is said to have been presented to one of their queens 
by the celebrated Koman pontiff, Gregory the Great, as a 
reward for converting the king to the Catholic faith (about 
600 A. D.). 

9. The reigns of Justinian and several of his successors 
were much disturbed by the encroachments of Persia, then 
the most extensive and powerful monarchy of the East ; 
but the emperor He-rac'li-us, in the beginning of the 
seventh century (622-628), in three remarkable expedi- 

* Or Longobards, meaning men with long beards. 



8. When did the Lombards invade Italy? Why? What part of it did they con- 
quer ? How long did their kingdom last ? What is said of the iron crown f 

9. What is said of Persia ? By whom was the Persian monarch defeated ? Who 
overturned the Persian monarchy ? 



A. D. 64i.] THE EASTEE1S" EMPIRE. 135 

tions, in which he displayed a boldness, perseverance, and 
military skill never surpassed, defeated Khos'ru, the greatest 
of the Persian monarchs, and effectually broke the power 
of the kingdom. Eight years afterward, the last of the 
Sas-san-i'des, a dynasty which had filled the Persian throne 
for four centuries, was defeated by the Sar'a-cens ; and in 
a few years the whole of the Persian dominions submitted 
to their victorious arms (a. d. 651). 

10. The reign of Heraclius is also remarkable for the 
commencement of that succession of victories and con- 
quests by which those enthusiastic Arabian zealots, called 
the Saracens, despoiled the Byzantine empire of the largest 
part of its dominions. Syria was subdued in this reign 
(a. d. 638), the forces of Heraclius having been defeated in 
several great battles ; and Damascus and Jerusalem were 
taken, seven centuries after Pompey had achieved the con- 
quest of Syria, and annexed it to the dominions of the 
Roman republic. Egypt was conquered during the next 
two years, Alexandria being taken after a siege of 14 
months (a. d. 640). This was the last drop of bitterness 
in the cup of the unfortunate Heraclius, who died seven 
weeks after he received intelligence of the sad event.* 

11. During the next half-century, the descendants of 
Heraclius continued to occupy the throne, and the empire 
was still further despoiled of its provinces by the irresisti- 
ble valor and activity of the Saracens. The conquest of all 
northern Africa was completed in this period ; and twice 
did the victorious Mohammedans lay siege to Constantino- 
ple itself, and were repelled from its walls only by the effectual 
use of the famous Greek fire. This is supposed, to have 
been a kind of bitumen or inflammable oil, and was poured 

* It was on this occasion thaft the great Alexandrian library was burnt, the bigoted Mahome- 
tan general saying that if the books agreed with the Korau they were unnecessary ; and it they 
contradicted it, they were pernicious. 



1 0. For what is the reign of Heraclius noted ? When was Syria subdued by the 
Saracens? Egypt? 

1 1 . What is said of the further conquests of the Saracens ? The Greek fire ? 



136 THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. [A. D. 1055. 

from the ramparts, or blown through long tubes against the 
besiegers. 

1 2. During the same period also, the Bulgarians, who in the 
previous century had been subject to the Avars, crossed the 
Danube, followed by various Slavonian tribes, as the Servi- 
ans, Bos'ni-ans, Cro-a'tians, etc., and having vanquished the 
Roman armies sent against them, founded (a. d. 680) the 
Kingdom of Bulgaria, in the country a part of which still 
bears this name. This kingdom was a formidable enemy 
of the Greek Empire till the reign of Basil II. (976-1025), 
by whom, after a war of several years, in which the most 
shocking cruelties were perpetrated, it was entirely subdued. 
It then became again a province of the empire, and so re- 
mained till 1186, when it once more regained its inde- 
pendence. 

13. In the ninth century (a. d. 865), the Russians, having 
descended the Bo-rys'the-nes (Dnieper) Eiver, in their rude 
boats and sailed into the Bosporus, made an attack upon 
Constantinople, but were repulsed. During the next cen- 
tury the attempt was twice repeated ; but although the ar- 
maments of the Russians were quite formidable, both from 
the number of the vessels and the valor of those who manned 
them, their expeditions were all unsuccessful. During the 
reign of Zim'is-ces (969-976), the Russians having gained a 
great victory over the Bulgarians, again threatened Con- 
stantinople, but were severely defeated by the brave and 
warlike emperor in several battles, %nd finally compelled to 
capitulate. Thus terminated these dangerous inroads. 

14. The next formidable enemy of the empire were the 
Turks, who abandoned their ancient habitations in Central 
Asia ; and, in the eleventh century, taking advantage of the 
dissensions of the Saracens, conquered Persia, capturing 
Bagdad in 1055. Previous to this they had carried their 

12. When and how was the Kingdom of Bulgaria founded ? Give a sketch of 
its history. 

1 3. What is said of the incursions of the Russians ? 

1 4. Describe the invasion of the Seljuk Turks. What is said of the Kingdom 
of Roum ? 



A. ». 1097.] THE EASTEE^" EMPIEE. 137 

conquering arms as far as northern India. In 1090, they 
had subdued Asia Minor and Syria ; and their empire ex- 
tended from the Hellespont to the borders of Chinese 
Tartary. These Turks belonged to the tribe called Seljuks 
(sel'yooks), and are not to be confounded with the Ot'to-man 
Turks, to be treated of hereafter. The dominions of the 
Seljuks were afterward divided, and a new kingdom was 
established by them in Asia Minor, called the Ki?igdom of 
Bourn (room), which lasted about two centuries (from 1075 
to 1272), during which period it waged frequent wars with 
the Greek Empire. Its capital was at first Nl'ce, in 
Bithynia, but in 1097 was removed to I-co'ni-um.* 

15. In 1076, Jerusalem, which had been in the possession 
of the Saracens for four centuries, was taken by the Seljuk 
Turks, who treated the pilgrims to the sepulchre of our 
Saviour with such insult and cruelty, that the Christian 
nations of Europe were roused to indignation, and sent 
against them those remarkable expeditions called the Cru- 
sades. In the first of these, Nice, the capital of SoTi-man, 
Sultan of Eoum, was taken (1097), and, a short time after- 
ward, Antioch and Jerusalem. The latter of these was 
made the capital of a new kingdom, which soon compre- 
hended the whole of Palestine. Most of Asia Minor was 
also rescued from the power of the Turks, and again an- 
nexed to the Creek Empire. 

16. In the fourth of these expeditions, during the reign 
of a usurping emperor at Constantinople, the Crusaders 
(French and Venetians) were induced by the son of the law- 
ful emperor to abandon the proper object of the expedition 
and attack Constantinople, with the view to restore the union 
of the Roman and Creek churches, which had separated on 
account of a difference in doctrine. The city was accord- 

*An ancient city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor. The Kingdom of Eoum (i. e. of the Romans) 
was afterward called the Kingdom of Iconium. 



15. By whom was Jerusalem taken in 1076? What led to the Crusades? 
What was done in the first Crusade ? 

16. What led to the taking of Constantinople hy the Crusaders ? 



138 THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. [A. ». 1272. 

. 

ingly besieged with all their forces, and, by means of the 
powerful fleet of the Venetians, was taken ; and the lawful 
emperor was restored to the throne. He being, however, the 
next year, by an insurrection of the inhabitants, deprived 
of his throne and put to death, the Crusaders again besieged 
the city, and took it by storm (1204). 

17. Most of the dominions of the empire were then di- 
vided between the French and Venetians, who appointed 
Baldwin, Count of Flanders, emperor. He and his suc- 
cessors, called the Latin Emperors, continued to occupy the 
throne till 1261, when the Greeks, who in the meanwhile 
had held Nice as their capital, again obtained possession of 
Constantinople, under their emperor Pal-m-ol'o-gus. This 
emperor expelled the Latins from the city ; but some few 
Latin principalities continued to exist' within the limits of 
the Empire until its final destruction. 

18. Meanwhile another tremendous revolution had taken 
place in western Asia, occasioned by an incursion of the 
Mon'gols, a Tartar race who, in the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century, under the renowned chief Jen'ghis Khan, 
subdued a large part of China, overturned the flourishing 
kingdom of Kha-rasm (now Kliiva), and conquered the 
greater part of Persia. Populous territories, abounding in 
the noblest works of mankind, were made entirely desolate, 
so that the peaceful industry of centuries has been scarcely 
sufficient to repair the ravages of a few years. After the 
death of Jenghis (1227), the Mongols passed into Syria and 
Asia Minor, pillaged Aleppo and Damascus, and destroyed 
the kingdom of Roum, or Iconium, the last Seljuk sultan 
seeking a refuge among the Greeks of Constantinople (1272). 
The Mongols subsequently carried their victorious arms 
into Europe, and devastated or conquered many of its most 
fertile and populous countries. 

17. How were the dominions of the empire divided by the Crusaders ? When 
did the Greeks regain Constantinople ? What is said of the Latins ? 

18. Give a sketch of the conquest of the Mongols under Jenghis Khan. When 
did the Seljuk kingdom of Iconium end ? What is further said of the Mongols 't 



A. D. 1402.] THE EASTEEH" EMPIRE. 139 

19. Soon after these events, and while the descendants 
of Palseologus still continued a feeble administration at 
Constantinople, there arose a power which was destined to 
cause the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire, and 
establish upon its ruins one which should rival it in extent, 
and far surpass it in the splendor of its conquests. This 
was the Ottoman Turks, so called from their founder 
tli' man, Ottoman, or Os'man, who in 1299 invaded Asia 
Minor, and in a few years succeeded in establishing there a 
kingdom, the capital of which he fixed at Pru'sa, in Bithy- 
nia. * This kingdom soon became one of the most flourish- 
ing states of the East. 

2D. The remaining history of the Greek Empire, during 
a century and a half, is but the narrative of its contests 
with the Ottomans, who successively wrested from it the 
fairest portions of its dominions. In the middle of the 
14th century (1360), Am'u-rath, one of the successors of 
Othman, captured Adrianople, and made it his capital. 
He afterward subdued Thrace and Macedon, but fell at 
Cos-so'va, in Servia, where, however, he defeated an im- 
mense army of Christians, amounting, it is said, to 500,000 
men (1390). His successor, Baj'a-zet, continued the tide of 
conquest ; and for ten years besieged Constantinople, but 
was called away to defend his dominions against the cele- 
brated chieftain Ti'mour, or Tarn! er-lane, by whom he was 
afterward defeated and taken prisoner (1402). 

21. This delayed the fall of the Greek Empire for some 
years ; but Timour's empire being dismembered, the Turks 
resumed their encroachments, and finally, under Mo-ham'- 
med II, after a siege of fifty-three days, took Constanti- 
nople by storm (May 29, 1453). Constantine (Palasologtcs), 

19. What power arose a short time after this ? Who was the founder of the 
Ottomans ? What kingdom was established by him ? 

20. What is said of the remaining history of the Greek Empire ? What con- 
quests were made by Amurath ? Where did he defeat the Christians ? By whom 
was he defeated. 

21. By whom and when was Constantinople taken? What events followed ? 
What is said of the history of the Byzantine emperors ? 



140 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

its last emperor, fell in the battle, and the inhabitants 
were either massacred, or carried into slavery. This event 
was soon followed by the subjugation of all the remaining 
dominions of the empire, which thus, after an existence 
of 1058 years, was brought to an end. The minute history 
of the dynasties and emperors which followed each other 
during this long period, presents probably the most shock- 
ing and disgraceful narrative of imbecility, wickedness, and 
crime, contained in any part of the annals of the world. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

395. Foundation of the Eastern Empire under Arcadius. 

408. Accession of Tlieodosius II. 

441. Invasion of Attila. 

493. Invasion of Italy by the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric. 

527. Accession of Justinian. 

584. Conquest of the Vandals by Belisarius. 

539 . Conquest of the Goths in Italy by Belisarius. 

552. Defeat of the Goths in Italy by Narses. Totila slain. 

564. Death of Belisarius. 

565. Death of Justinian. Recall of Narses from Italy. 
568. Invasion of Italy by the Lombards. 

622. Defeat of the Persians by the Emperor Heraclius. 
638. Conquest of Syria by the Saracens. 
640. Alexandria taken by the Saracens. 
651. Conquest of Persia by the Saracens. 
680. Foundation of the Kingdom of Bulgaria. 
865. Constantinople attacked by the Russians. 
1055. Conquest of Persia by the Seljuk Turks. 

1075. Foundation of the Kingdom of Roum or Iconium. 

1076. Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks. 

1097. Nice, the capital of Roum, taken by the Crusaders. 

1204. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. Accession of the Latin 

emperors. Baldwin. 
1261 . Constantinople retaken by the Greeks. Palseologus emperor. 
1272. Kingdom of Iconium destroyed by the Mongols. 
1299. Invasion of Asia Minor by the Ottoman Turks. 
1360. Capture of Adrianople by the Ottomans, under Amurath. 
1453. Constantinople taken. — End of the Greek Empire. 



THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 141 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. Give an account of the reign of Arcadius 131 

2. What important events occurred during the reign of Theodosius n. ? . . 132 

3. State the great events of Justinian's reign 132-133-134 

4. Give an account of Behsarius 132-133 

5. What victories were gained by Narses ? 133 

6. Who were the Bulgarians and Slavonians? 133-136 

7. Give an account of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric and Totila 132-133 

8. Who were the Lombards, and what monarchy did they found ? 134 

9. Who were the Avars, and what led to their invasion of the empire ? . . . 133-134 

10. For what events is the reign of Heraclius memorable ? 134-135 

1 1. During whose reign did the Saracens begin their conquests ? 135 

12. When and by whom was Constantinople attacked ? — 135-136-137-139 

13. What was the Greek fire, and how was it used ? 135 

14. Give an account of the Seljuk Turks and their conquests 136-137-138 

15. Relate the history of the kingdom of Roum 137-138 

16. What led to the Crusades ? 137 

17. How did the Latin emperors acquire the throne of Constantinople, and 

how long did they retain it ? 137 

18. Who was Jenghis Khan, and what conquests did he make ? 138 

19. What further couquests were made by the Mongols after the death of 

Jenghis Khan ? 138 

20. Who were the Ottomans, and why were they so called ? 139 

21. During what periods did they attack the empire ? 139 

22. What conquests were made by Amurath ? 139 

23. Give an account of the battle of Cossova 139 

24. Give an account of Timour, or Tamerlane 139 

25. When and by whom was Constantinople finally taken ? . . . , 139-140 

26. What was the fate of the inhabitants ? 140 

27. Who was the last of the Greek emperors ? 140 

28. How long had the Byzantine Empire lasted ? 140 

29. What is the general character of the internal history of this empire ? . . 140 

30. After whom was Constantinople named ? I 22 

31. Who was Chrysostom, and during whose reign did he live ? 131 

32. When and by whom was the Alexandrian library burnt ? (note) 135 

33. Give a brief sketch of the history of the kingdom of Bulgaria 136 

34. What is the date of the foundation of the Eastern Empire ? 140 

35. Mention three important events in the history of this empire, that 

occurred during the fifth century 140 

36. Mention seven important events of the sixth century 140 

37. Mention five of the seventh century 140 

38. What important event occurred during the ninth century ? 140 

39. Mention four important events of the eleventh century 140 

40. Mention four of the thirteenth century 140 

41. What is the date of the taking of Constantinople by the Ottomans ? . . . 140 

42. When did Justinian's reign commence, and what was its duration ? . . . 140 

43. When was Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks ? 140 

44. What was the origin of the famous iron crown of the Lombards ? 134 



142 THE DARK AGES. 



section ii. 
The Dark Ages, 

Extending from the Invasion of Gaul by the Franks to the End of the 
Saracen Empire (a. d. 1258). 

1. The history of the Dark Ages, so called from the 
universal ignorance and superstition that prevailed during 
that period, is the history of the various warlike and bar- 
barous nations that, migrating from the north and east, 
overwhelmed the Koman Empire, and, occupying the dif- 
ferent districts of Europe, laid the foundation of the present 
nations found in those countries. Most of these barbarous 
tribes have already been referred to and briefly described in 
connection with the history of the two divisions of the 
Eoman Empire; but in this section there is presented a 
more specific account of those whose influence was espe- 
cially powerful and wide-spread, and whose more durable 
institutions have affected the character and condition of 
the modern world. These are, the Franks, the Saxons, the 
Saracens, and the Normans. 

The Frakks. 

2. The Franks, or Freemen, were a confederation of 
German tribes living in the country near the lower part 

Map Questions. — (See Progressive Map, No. 6.) How far did the empire of 
Charlemagne extend from east to west ? What river was its eastern boundary ? 
How far did it extend toward the south ? — Arts. To Gaeta, in Italy. How far did 
it extend toward the north ? — Ans. To the Baltic Sea. What state occupied the 
southeastern part of France ? The southwestern part ? What monarchy occupied 
both sides of the Lower Danube ? What people dwelt in the districts of the Upper 
Danube ? What people occupied both banks of the Oder ? What race lived in the 
regions near the Elbe and Rhine ? What monarchy occupied nearly all Spain ? To 
what part of Spain had the Visigoths retired ? What kingdom existed in the north- 
ern part of Africa ? What was'its capital ? Where was'the Caliphate of Bagdad ? 

1 . What is said of the history of the Dark Ages ? Why are they so called ? 
W T hich were the most important of the barbaric nations ? 

2. Who were the Franks ? When did Clovis invade Gaul ? Who was he ? What 
were his other chief conquests and victories ? Where was Burgundy ? 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 6 




A.». 511.] THE DARK AGES. 143 

of the Rhine, who in the third century successfully opposed 
the Romans, committing great devastations throughout Gaul 
and Spain. In the fifth century (a. d. 486), Clo'vis, chief 
of a tribe known as the Sa'lian Franlcs, invaded Gaul, and 
having victoriously overrun the greater part of it, founded 
therein a new monarchy, the capital of which he fixed at 
Lu-te'tia, or Paris.* He chose for his queen Clo-til'da, a 
Christian princess, and niece of the king of Burgundy, a 
country situated east of the Rhone ; and through her in- 
fluence he embraced Christianity. He gained several great 
victories over the Al-le-man'ni — a powerful confederation of 
German tribes — and defeated the Burgundians and the 
Visigoths, the latter of whom were deprived of nearly all 
their possessions in Gaul. 

3. After the death of Clovis (oil), his extensive domin- 
ions were divided among his sons, and thus were formed 
three kingdoms : 1. Aus-tra 'sia, east of the Rhine ; 2. Neus'- 
tria, north of the Loire; and 3. Aquitaine (ak'zve-tain), 
between the Loire (Iwar) and the Pyrenees. These were 
afterward united under a single monarch, and increased by 
the annexation of Burgundy, which was obtained by con- 
quest. Thus the monarchy of the Franks became more 
powerful and extensive than any other formed by the Bar- 
barians, and was the only one that was durable. In the his- 
tory of France, Clovis and his descendants are called the 
Mer-o-vin 'gi-ans, from Mer-o-vce'us, one of their ancestors. 
This dynasty lasted a little more than 250 years (486-752). 

4. The immediate successors of Clovis were noted for 
their constant dissensions, their vices, and the dreadful 
crimes which they perpetrated to obtain possession of each 
other's dominions. Some were great warriors, like Clovis 

* Lufetia was the name given by the Romans to the collection of huts built of mud (lutum), 
and inhabited by a Gallic tribe called the Parisii, from whom it was afterward called Paris. 

3. How were the dominions of Clovis divided at his death ? What is said of the 
monarchy of the Franks ? Who were the Merovingians ? How long did the dy- 
nasty last ? 

4. What is said of the successors of Clovis? Who were the "Mayors of the 
Palace ?" When did Pepin d'Heristal rule ? 



144 THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 774. 

himself; but for more than a century previous to the termi- 
nation of the dynasty, they were but nominally kings [called 
Faineants (fa-na-ong) — Do-nothing s\, all the royal power 
being exercised by the great ministers, styled Mayors of the 
Palace. This high office was made hereditary by Pep' in 
d'Her-is-tal', who held it from 687 to 714. 

5. He was succeeded by the famous Charles Mar-tel' (the 
Hammer), who, when the Saracens, after completing the 
conquest of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, threatening not 
only the subjugation of France but of all Europe, met 
them near Tours (toor), and inflicted upon them so severe 
a defeat, that they were completely checked in their long 
tide of conquests (732). 

6. Pejnn the Short,* the successor of Charles Martel, 
haying rendered important aid in repelling the Lombards 
from Eome, was, by the authority of Pope Zach'ary, placed 
upon the throne of the Franks, and the weak Ohil'de-ric, 
the last of the Merovingians, was formally deposed (752). 
Thus commenced the Carlovingian dynasty. This period 
is also noted for the termination of the rule of the Eastern 
emperors in Italy, and the commencement of the temporal 
dominion of the Koman Pontiff, whose government of the 
territories previously included within the Exarchate of Ra- 
venna, was acknowledged and sustained by Pepin. 

7. At the death of Pepin (768), his two sons Car'lo-man 
and Charles succeeded, but the former dying, Charles 
[afterward known as Charlemagne (shar'le-mahn) — Charles 
the Great] became the sole monarch of the Franks, and 
the ruler over not only France, but a large part of Ger- 
many. He made war upon the Lombards in Italy, and 
having taken Pavia, their capital (774), put an end to this 

* So called from his very low stature, being it is said only four and a half feet high; while his 
Bon Charlemagne was seven feet in height. 



5 . By whom was he succeeded ? What great victory did Charles Martel gain ? 

6. How did Pepin the Short become king ? What dynasty was commenced by 
him ? For what is this period noted ? 

7. Who succeeded Pepin ? What were the chief conquests of Charlemagne .' 
What did the battle of Roncevalles srive rise to ? 



A. D. 841.] THE DARK AGES. 145 

monarchy, which, had lasted about two centuries. He also, 
after several years of severe war, reduced the Saxons on the 
lower Weser (we'zer), and invading Spain, which was then in 
possession of the Saracens, conquered all that part lying 
north of the E'bro (778). On his return through the 
Pyrenees, the rearguard of his army was surprised at 
Ron-ces-val'les and defeated, its brave commander Ro'land, 
the favorite nephew of Charlemagne, being slain. This 
battle gave rise to many romantic stories, and formed the 
subject of the most popular epic poem of the Middle Ages, 
the famous " Song of Koland." 

8. Charlemagne also gained some victories over the 
Avars, in Pannonia, and other eastern races ; and in 800, 
while on a visit to Italy, the Pope (Leo III.) crowned him 
Emperor of the Romans, thus reviving the Empire of the 
"West, the capital of which Charlemagne fixed at Aix la 
Chapelle [dices lah sha-peT). This monarch was not only 
distinguished for his military talents, but was passionately 
fond of learning, receiving instruction from Al'cuin, a Saxon, 
who was the most accomplished scholar of the age. He 
also showed the greatness as well as beneficence of his char- 
acter by the many useful enterprises which he planned for 
the benefit of his people, and by his efforts to dispel the ig- 
norance which universally prevailed. His death occurred 
in 814. 

9. His son and successor, Louis le Deb-on-naire' (the 
Easy) was of too mild and un warlike a disposition to reign 
over an empire so extensive, and composed of such hetero- 
genous parts ; and his own sons formed conspiracies against 
him. After his death, in 840, three divisions were formed, 
one for each of his sons ; but they soon quarrelled, and the 
great battle of Fon-te-naille' was fought (841), in which, it 

8 . What other victories were gained by Charlemagne ? What title did the Pope 
confer on him ? What is said of his character ? Who was Alcuin ? 

9. Who succeeded Charlemagne ? What was the character of Louis ? What 
occurred after his death ? What was the result of the battle of Fontenaille ? How 
was the empire divided in 843 ? 



146 THE DAKK AGES. [A. D. 912. 

is said, so many of the bravest generals and soldiers of the 
empire fell, that it was afterward impossible to repel the 
incursions of the Normans, who about this time commenced 
their piratical attacks. Two years after this battle (843), a 
treaty was made by the contending parties, according to 
which a new distribution of the imperial dominions was 
made among the three sons ; — Louis receiving Germany ; 
Charles, France ; and Lothaire, Italy. 

10. Charles the Fat, a son of Louis, obtained possession of 
the whole in 884 ; but three years afterward it was finally 
separated, Germany alone retaining the imperial title and 
dignity. The other divisions were France, Italy, and Bur- 
gundy or Aries (arl),* this latter kingdom having regained 
its independence during the weak reigns of some of the pre- 
ceding Carlo vingian princes. 

11. The Normans. — These were a bold and enterpris- 
ing race from Norway and Denmark, and were sometimes 
called Norsemen or Northmen. They commenced their 
ravages during the reign of Charlemagne ; but under his 
successors, taking advantage of the weakness of the govern- 
ment, they sailed up the navigable rivers, pillaged and 
burnt the great towns, and retired dragging away many of 
the inhabitants with them. During the reign of an im- 
becile king, named Charles the Simple, they ascended the 
Seine {sane), and besieged Paris ; whereupon the king, un- 
able to make any resistance, finally ceded to their ruler, 
Duke Rollo, a large district in the north of France, after- 
ward called Normandy (912). The same active race 
about the same time crossed the Atlantic, and estab- 
lished colonies in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Green- 
land ; and in the next century are supposed to have visited 

* So named because its dukes, or rulers, for some time made the city of Aries their capital. 



1 0. Who afterward ruled over the whole ? What was the final division ? 
When was it made ? 

1 1 . Who were the Normans ? What ravages were committed by them ? What 
took place during the reign of Charles the Simple ? What other colonies were 
established by the Normans during this period ? 



A. B. 449.] THE DARK AGES. 147 

the eastern shore of North America, in the latitude of New 
England. 

12. During the reign of Louis V., surnamed Le Faineant 
{the Do-nothing), Hugo, or Hugh Cap'et, the most powerful of 
the French vassals, seized the throne, which, on account of 
the moderation and efficiency of his government, he was al- 
lowed by the Church and the nobles to retain He was 
formally crowned in 987, thus inaugurating a new line of 
kings, named after him the Capetian Dynasty. 

The Saxon's in Britain. 

13. The Saxons were a German race who, as early as the 
third century, made their appearance in northern Ger- 
many; and, forming powerful confederations, during the 
reigns of Julian and Valentinian, invaded the Eoman em- 
pire. At a later period, probably in the fifth century, they 
commenced their incursions in Gaul and Britain. After 
the abandonment of the latter province by the Romans, 
hordes of these barbarous tribes, associated with An'gles 
and Jutes from Denmark, rushed with irresistible force 
upon the island, and completed the conquest of the whole, 
except the western portion, now called Wales, into which 
the remnant of the British population retired. 

14. The story generally related to account for this revo- 
lution is, that the Britons, attacked by the Scots and Picts 
from the north, and being deserted by the Romans, and 
therefore unable to defend their country, invited the Saxons 
to assist them in repelling their enemies. The Saxons 
coming over (449) under two leaders, named Hen'ghist and 
Hor'sa, soon drove back the Scots and Picts, but finding 
the country which they had saved by their valor pleasant 
and fertile, determined to conquer it for themselves." This 
story is now generally considered mythical ; the evidence 

1 2. How and when did Hugh the Great acquire the throne ? What new dynasty 
was commenced by him ? 

1 3. Who were the Saxons? Describe their invasion of Britain. 
14. Give the mythical history of this event. 



148 THE DARK AGES. [A. Jtt. 597. 

which we possess only showing that Britain was conquered 
by the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons in the fifth century. 

15. Thus were formed during the fifth and sixth cen- 
turies, by the many inroads of these people, seven kingdoms 
in different parts of the island, named collectively the 
Saxon Hep'tar-chy, and consisting of : 1, Kent ; 2, Sussex ; 
3, Wessex ; 4, Essex; 5, Nortliumbria ; 6, East Anglia ; 
7, Mercia. Various wars arose among these states, and 
many changes occurred in their respective territories, the 
final result of which was that Wessex absorbed all the 
others ; and in 827, its king Egbert became the acknowledged 
monarch of the whole country, to which he gave the name of 
England (E?igla-land, i. e., Land of the Angles). 

16. To this period of the Saxon history belong the 
stories related of King Arthur, a famous British cham- 
pion who became renowned for his many victories over the 
Saxon invaders ; also the partial conversion of the Saxons 
to Christianity, which was effected by St. Au-gus-tine' and 
several monks, commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great 
to perform this work (597). The barbarous and ferocious 
manners of the age, although softened, were by no means 
removed, by the partial christianization thus effected. 

17. During the period of the Heptarchy, the Danes com- 
menced their inroads upon the Saxons. These were Norse- 
men who had come from Norway to Denmark, and occu- 
pied the lands left uninhabited by the emigration of the 
Angles and Jutes to Britain. It is said that these North- 
men were induced to make depredations on Charlemagne's 
dominions by the Saxon exiles, who had been driven from 
their homes in northern Germany by the victorious arms 
of the great Erankish monarch. After several years of 
fierce war, Charlemagne succeeded finally in subduing 



1 5. What kingdoms were formed in Britain ? When and by whom were they 
united ? What name was given to the kingdom thus formed ? 

1 6. What is related of the period of the Saxon conquest ? When and how were 
the Saxons converted ? 

1 7. Who were the Danes ? Why did they invade Charlemagne's dominions ? 



A. D. 622.] THE DARK AGES. 149 

those heroic Germans, and taking possession of their country, 
dispersed them among the surrounding nations (804). 

The Saraceks. 

18. Sar'a-cens — meaning Eastern People — was the name 
given to that fierce and active race, who, proceeding from 
Arabia in the seventh century, rapidly overran a consider- 
able part of Western Asia and the whole of northern 
Africa, and made a conquest of the kingdom of the Visi- 
goths in Spain ; but were stopped in their victorious career 
by the valor of the Franks, under their renowned leader, 
Charles Martel. 

19. They were followers of Ma'lio-met, or Mo-ham'med, 
who was born at Mec'ca, and in the fortieth year of his age 
(611), pretended to have a divine mission, and a new reve- 
lation from God. The preaching of his doctrines excited 
great opposition at Mecca; and in 622 (July 16), he was 
compelled to flee from the city in order to save his life. 
This event, called in Arabic the He-gi'ra, is the epoch which 
the Mohammedans employ in their chronology. 

2®. His prophetic character being acknowledged at Me-di'- 
na, in which city he had taken refuge, his doctrines rapidly 
gained general credence ; and, having assumed the sword as 
a. means of making converts, he was enabled, seven years 
after his flight, to re-enter Mecca in triumph, being sus- 
tained by a large army which he had collected from among 
the roving Arabs by large promises of plunder in this 
world, and everlasting bliss in the next. The whole 
Arabian nation, soon after the taking of Mecca, embraced 
his doctrines, became thorough believers in his sacred mis- 
sion, and determined to extirpate all unbelievers, or compel 
them to assent to the cardinal principle of his creed, 
" Tliere is hut one God, and Mohammed is Ms prophet ." 

18. Who were the Saracens ? 

19. Who was Mahomet, and what were the first effects of his preaching 
When did the Hegira occur ? 

20. When did his doctrine gain credence, and what was the result ? 



150 THE DAKK AGES. [A. ». 655. 

21. The impostor had not only conquered Arabia, but 
had commenced the conquest of Syria, when death stopped 
him in his successful career, at the age of 63 (a.d. 632). 
He was succeeded by A-lu'le-Tcer, styled the First Caliph 
(i. e. vicar), who collected the fragmentary writings of 
Mohammed, and formed from them the sacred book called 
by his followers the Ko'ran. He also prosecuted the con- 
quest of Syria, defeated, by means of his general, Ca'led 
(called the "Sword of God"), Heraclius, the Greek em- 
peror, and took Damascus. Under his successor, O'mar, 
Jerusalem was taken (a. d. 637), and all Syria subdued; 
Egypt was conquered, and the Persians defeated in a great 
battle, at Ca-de'sia, on the Tigris Kiver. 

22. This caliph, it is said, during a reign of ten years, 
reduced 36,000 cities and Tillages, demolished 4,000 Chris- 
tian churches, and erected 1500 Mohammedan temples, 
called mosques. He was succeeded by Oth' man, who com- 
pleted the conquest of Persia and other eastern countries, 
extended his dominion in Africa, and published a new edi- 
tion of the Koran. Cyprus and Ehodes were also taken, the 
Saracens at the latter place destroying the famous brazen 
Co-los'sus,* or statue of Phoe'bus, the god of the sun. The 
murder of Othman made Ali (ah'le) caliph, considered the 
bravest and most virtuous of the successors of Mohammed 
(a. d. 655). 

23. The reign of Ali is noted for the schism which 
occurred among these fierce zealots, by which the whole 
Mohammedan world became divided into two parties, called 
the Su?i'nltes and the Shi'Ues, the former acknowledging 

* This celebrated statue was erected 300 b. c. It was formed of metal, cast in separate pieces, 
was about 100 feet high, and took twelve years to complete it. It was thrown down by an 
earthquake, about sixty years after its erection, and remained in ruins nearly nine centuries. 
The Saracens caused it to be broken up and sold. 



2 1 . When did Mohammed's death occur, and hy whom was he succeeded ? What 
was done hy Ahu-beker ? What conquests were made hy Caled ? What was 
achieved under Omar ? 

22. How many cities, etc., were taken under Omar ? By whom was he succeeded? 
What were the chief events of Othman's reign ? Who was his successor * 

23. What schism occurred while Ali was caliph ? What usurpation took place, 
and what dynasty was founded ? 



A. ». 711. j • THE DAKK AGES. 151 

the authority of all the caliphs, while the latter reject all 
but Ali, whom they regard as the equal of Mohammed. 
The Shiites also reject the Sun'nah, a book of traditions 
concerning the prophet, which the Sunnites, or orthodox 
Mohammedans, receive as sacred. During the reign of Ali, 
Mo-a-wi'yah usurped the government of Syria, and by the 
murder of Ali, became caliph. He was the first of the 
dynasty called the Om-mi-ya'des, which lasted till 752. 

24. Moawiyah fixed his capital at Damascus, and, by his 
A-mir-al-ma (captain at sea; hence our word admiral) and 
his lieutenant Ah 1 ball, continued the conquest of northern 
Africa, founding south of Tunis the famous city of 
Kairwan (Mre-wahn ). It was the army of this caliph that 
besieged Constantinople, and was repulsed by means of the 
Greek fire, so efficiently employed by its defenders (668- 
675). About forty years afterward (717) Constantinople 
was again attacked by an army of Saracens, said to num- 
ber 120,000 men ; but, after a siege of thirteen months, was 
relieved by the Bulgarians, who fell upon the Saracens, and 
defeated them with immense slaughter. 

25. Carthage was taken by the Saracens in 698, and 
utterly destroyed, after which they encountered no opposi- 
tion in Africa except from the native Berber tribes, whom 
they finally subdued (709) and converted. From the union 
of the Arabic and Berber races sprung the Moors, so noted in 
Saracenic history. The conquest of Africa was immediately 
followed by that of Spain ; for Mu'sa, the Saracen generaL, 
dispatched his lieutenant Ta'rih across the strait of Gib- 
raltar [Gib-el- Tarik — mountain of Tarik) with an army, 
which defeated Roderick, the last of the Visigothic kings, 
and thus destroyed their monarchy in Spain, after an ex- 
istence of more than two centuries (711).* A remnant of 

* It is said that the Saracens were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Gothic noble, in -re- 
venge for an injury inflicted upon him by King Roderick. 



24. What was the capital under Moawiyah ? What were the chief events of his 
reign ? When was Constantinople attacked, and how was it saved ? 

25. What account is given of the conquest of Africa? Of Spain? What be- 
came of the Goths ? 



152 THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 808. 

the Gothic nation, however, escaped to the highlands 
among the Asturian mountains, where they succeeded in 
maintaining their independence for many centuries. 

26. Crossing the Pyrenees, the victorious Saracens were 
still pressing on in their career of conquest when they were 
defeated, in a battle that lasted seven days, by the renowned 
Charles Martel, who by his valor and skill probably rescued 
Europe from the Mohammedan yoke (732). His grandson 
Charlemagne more than fifty years afterward drove them 
beyond the Ebro, and thus confined them to their do- 
minions in Spain. The Ommiade dynasty of caliphs was, in 
the middle of the eighth century (752), succeeded by tkeAb- 
bas'i-des, descendants of Ab'has, the uncle of Mohammed; 
bat one of the Ommiyades, escaping to Spain, founded 
an independent caliphate at Cor'do-va, which lasted 250 
years, and was one of the largest and most splendid centres 
of commerce, literature, and the arts in the world. 

27. Al Mansur (man-soor'), the second of the Abbasides, 
removed the capital to the Tigris, founding there the city 
of Bagdad, which was built out of the ruins of Seleucia and 
Ctesiphon (762). The most celebrated of the caliphs of 
Bagdad was Ha'roun-al-Rasch'id (Aaron the Just), made 
familiar both to young and old by the tales of the " Arabian 
Nights." During this reign (786-808), and several succeed- 
ing reigns, literature and science, particularly astronomy, 
were carried to a very high degree of perfection both at 
Cordova and Bagdad, while nearly all Europe was slum- 
bering in the intellectual night of the dark ages. 

28. After the reign of Haroun al Easchid, the Saracen 
empire became divided by the rebellion and usurpation of 
the provincial governors, so that, in the beginning of the 

26. What stopped the Saracens in their career of conquest? When did the 
Ommiade dynasty cease, and hy whom was it succeeded ? What was established 
at Cordova ? 

27. Who founded Bagdad? What is said of Haroun al Easchid? What pro- 
gress was made in literature and science by the Saracens ? 

28. How was the empire afterward divided ? How many caliphates were there 
in the tenth century ? Which was the most distinguished ? How long did the 
Fatimites continue in power ? By whom were they succeeded at Cairo ? 



A. ». 1258.] THE DARK AGES. 153 



10th century, there were no less than seven caliphates, all 
of whom acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad only as the 
successor of Mohammed, denying to him any temporal 
authority over their respective dominions. Of these inde- 
pendent kingdoms the most distinguished was that of the 
Fat'i-mites* in Africa, whose capital was Cairo {hi'ro), and 
who continued in power till 1171, when the last of the 
dynasty was succeeded by the famous Sal'a-din. 

29. In the eleventh century (1055), Bagdad was taken by 
the Seljuks ; but these fierce barbarians, being believers in 
Mohammed, acknowledged the caliphs of Bagdad as their 
superiors. The power, however, of the latter had been 
greatly diminished ; and their dominions scarcely extended 
beyond the walls of the city. At length, in 1258, during 
the reign of the grandson of Jenghis Khan, Bagdad was 
taken and sacked by the Mongols ; and the caliphate ex- 
tinguished, after it had existed nearly 500 years. This is 
generally regarded as the termination of the Saracen em- 
pire, although, centuries before, its various parts had been 
but nominally connected. 

The Feudal System. 

30. The prevailing system by which, during the period 
from the 9th to the 13th century, social and political rela- 
tions, including particularly the rights of property, were 
regulated in nearly all the countries of Europe, was called the 
Feudal System, a feudal proprietor being a person who 
held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- 
vices which he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the 
other, as a suzerain or superior. 



* So called because they were believed to be the descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Mo- 
hammed. 



29. By whom was Bagdad taken in the eleventh century ? When and in what 
way did the Saracen empire terminate ? 

30. What was the feudal system ? What was meant by a feudal proprietor ? 



154 THE DAEK AGES. 



31. With the exception of the duty of military service to 
their superiors, the yassals of a king practically were invested 
with sovereign power within their own dominions, having 
vassals in various degrees beneath them ; and living in their 
fortified castles, often by means of pillage, while the 
peasantry were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 

32. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horse- 
back, and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, 
often ornamented with gold and silver. Their principal 
weapons of offence were long lances, with which they rode 
fiercely against each other ; and clubs, maces, or swords for 
hand-to-hand conflicts when their lances were broken, or 
when the combatants became unhorsed. The common 
soldiers fought on foot, were unprovided with protective 
armor, and used bows and arrows, — either long-bows or 
cross-bows. The Normans were skilled in the use of every 
species of arms, but particularly in the cross-bow ; and, 
after the Norman invasion, the English became the most 
skilful archers in the world. Cannon came into use in the 
middle of the fourteenth century. 

33. The feeble bond of union by which the different 
members of society were held together, led to violence, re- 
bellion, and anarchy ; and, during the middle ages, was a 
perfect barrier against all improvement in government, 
manners, or the arts of civilized life. The feudal system 
gradually yielded to influences which will be explained in 
connection with the subsequent history. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

449. Invasion of Britain by the Saxons. 

486. Invasion of Gaul by Clovis. 

597. Conversion of the Saxons in Britain to Christianity. 

3 1 . What was the condition of the vassals ? Of the peasantry ? 

32. How did the feudal nobles and gentlemen fight ? The common soldiers ? 
What is said of the skill of the Normans ? Of the JSnglish ? 

33. What was the condition of society during the middle ages ? 



THE DAEK AGES. 155 



611. Mohammed commences his pretended mission. 

622. Flight of Mohammed from Mecca. The Hegira. 

629. Mohammed enters Mecca in triumph. 

632. Death of Mohammed. 

637. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens. 

661. Commencement of the Ommiyades. 

687. Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace. 

698. Carthage stormed by the Saracens, and destroyed. 

709. Conquest of Africa completed by the Saracens. 

711. Spain conquered by the Saracens. 

End of the monarchy of the Yisigoths. 

732. The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel 

752. End of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, and of 

the Saracen dynasty of the Ommiyades. 

755. The Pope made a temporal prince. 

762. Bagdad founded by the Saracens. 

768. Accession of Carloman and Charles, afterward styled 

Charlemagne. 

774. Pavia taken by Charlemagne. End of the Kingdom of the 

Lombards. 

786-808. Reign of Haroun al Raschid at Bagdad. 

800. Charlemagne crowned " Emperor of the Romans." The 
Western Empire revived. 

804. The Saxons in Germany subdued by Charlemagne. 

814. Death of Charlemagne. 

827. England founded by Egbert. 
End of the Saxon Heptarchy. 

841. Battle of Fontenaille. 

843. The empire of Charlemagne divided. 

884. Charles the Fat sole monarch of the Franks. 

'887. Final division of the Empire into France, Germany, Bur- 

gundy, and Italy. 

910. Commencement of the Fatimite dynasty at Tunis. 

912. The Normans settle in France, during the reign of Charles 

the Simple. 

987. Hugh Capet becomes king of France. 

End of the Carlovingian dynasty. 
1055. Bagdad taken by the Seljuks. 

1171. The Fatimite dynasty overturned at Cairo by Saladin. 

1258. Bagdad taken by Jenghis Khan. 
End of the Saracen Empire. 



156 THE DAKK AGES. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGH 

1. What period is called the Dark Ages ? 142 

2. Give a sketch of the history of Clovis 143 

3. During what period did the Merovingians occupy the throne of France ? 143 

4. Name the most celehrated of the Mayors of the Palace, and state for 

what they were distinguished 144 

5. Give the history of Pepin the Short 141 

6. Give a sketch of the history of Charlemagne 144-145 

7. Who was Alcuin, and for what was he distinguished ? 145 

8. What was the " Song of Poland ?" 145 

9. Mention the most eminent of the successors of Charlemagne 145-146 

10. Give a sketch of the history of the Normans 146 

11. What led to the establishment of the Capetian Dynasty ? 147 

12. What led to the invasion of Britain by the Saxons ? 147 

13. Give a sketch of the history of the Saxon Heptarchy 148 

14. What led to the invasion of Britain by the Danes ? 148 

15. Who was King Arthur ? 148 

16. Give a sketch of the history of Mohammed... 149-150 

17. Who were the most noted of his immediate successors ? 150-151 

18. Give an account of the conquest of Syria, Egypt, and Persia, by the 

Saracens 150-151 

19. What is the origin of the name Gibraltar ? 151 

20. Give an account of the Ommiyades 151-152 

21. Give the history of the Abbasides 152 

22. Who was Haroun al Raschid, and for what was he noted ? 152 

23. Give a sketch of the history of the Caliphs of Bagdad 152-153 

24. Give the history of the Fatimites 153 

25. During what period did the Saracen Empire last ? 149-153 

26. State the peculiar features of the Feudal System 153-154 

27. What were the effects of this system upon the manners and state of 

society of the Middle Ages ? 154 

28. Describe the mode of warfare practised during this period 154 

29. What is the date of the Hegira ? 149-155 

30. What Saracen monarch was contemporary with Charlemagne ? 155 

31. What two important events in the tenth century were very nearly 

contemporaneous ? 155 

32. By whom was Bagdad taken in the eleventh century ? 155 

33. By whom was it taken in the thirteenth century ? 155 

34. Mention, in chronological order, the important events of the fifth 

century 154 

35. Mention those of the seventh century 155 

33. Mention those of the eighth century 155 

37. What were the most important events of the ninth century ? 155 

33. What important event of French history occurred in the tenth century ? 155 
S9. What important event in the Saracen history took place in the eleventh 

century V 155 

40. What important event occurred in 732 ? 155 

41. Name ten events from 732 to the death of Charlemagne 155 

42. Name in chronological order fourteen events after the death of Charle- 

magne 155 



A. D. 827.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 157 



section iii. 

England in the Middle Ages, 

Extending from tJte Foundation of the Anglo-Saxon Monarchy under 
Egbert (827) to the Accession of Henry VII. (1485). 

1. Egbert and his successors, the Saxon kings of Eng- 
land, held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1066) 
The most eminent among the latter was Alfred the Great, 
who was the most illustrious monarch of his age (871-901), 
and one of the wisest and most virtuous kings that ever 
reigned. Though at one time entirely overwhelmed by the 
Danes, who had long disturbed the kingdom by their irrup- 
tions, and though reduced to such an extremity that he was 
obliged to seek safety in an obscure part of the country, in 
the disguise of a peasant, he at last by his fortitude and 
address was enabled to defeat his enemies, and to regain his 
throne. The Danes being expelled, he restored tranquillity 
to the country, and endeavored, by judicious measures, to 
promote the prosperity and civilization of the people. He 
founded the University of Oxford, improved the laws of 
the kingdom, and established schools for the education of 
the people. 

2. The continued struggle with the Danes forms the 
most prominent feature of the Saxon history of England. 
Edward, surnamed the Elder, the son and successor of 
Alfred, and Edward's successor, Atli' el-stan, were distin- 

Map Questions. — (Map, page 158.) What cities and towns near the southern 
coast of England ? What cities and towns near the boundary of Wales ? In the 
northern part of England ? In the eastern part ? Where is Bosworth ? Edge Hill ? 
Northampton ? What cities and towns in the southern part of Scotland ? In the 
northern part ? In what part of Ireland is Dublin ? Drogheda ? Londonderry ? 
Galway ? Cork ? In what part of Wales is Milford Haven ? Caernarvon ? 

1. How long did Egbert and his successors hold the English throne ? Who was 
the most eminent of the Saxon kings ? What was his character ? The chief events 
of his reign ? 

2. What constitutes the chief feature of the Saxon history ? What kings de 
feated the Danes ? What massacre was committed ? The consequence of it J 
How did Canute become king ? 



158 



E^GLAKD IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1013. 



guislied for the victories which they gained oyer these fierce 
and persevering invaders. During the reign of Mh' el-red f 
surnamed the Unready, a barbarous massacre, ordered by 




the king, of all the Danes who had settled in any part of 
the country, so incensed Siveyn (swane), king of Denmark, 
that he raised an immense army, with which he invaded 
the kingdom, and having compelled Ethelred to flee, caused- 



A. B. 1017.] ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. . 159 

himself to be proclaimed king of England (1013). On his 
death, Ethelred was restored to the throne ; but his suc- 
cessor, Edmund Ironside, was defeated by an army of 
Danes under Can-ute', the successor of Sweyn, and com- 
pelled to surrender one-half of his dominions to the victor, 
who, a short time afterward, by the death of Edmund, be- 
came sole monarch of England (1017). 

3. Canute, surnamed the Great, was an able and politic 
monarch, whose rule, although at first severe and cruel, 
became afterward so popular from its efficiency and mod- 
eration, that the Anglo-Saxon people forgot that they had 
been subjugated ; and after his death (1035) Canute was as 
much lamented as Alfred or Athelstan. He was succeeded 
by his son, Har'old Harefoot, so called from his fondness for 
the chase and his swiftness in running. At his death, 
his brother Hardicanute obtained the throne, after whom 
the English succeeded in throwing off the Danish yoke, and 
the Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward, sur- 
named the Con'fessor, on account of his fondness for learn- 
ing, his studious habits, and his distaste for active pursuits. 
He was canonized by the Pope, and very much revered by 
his people, who imputed to him the power of curing the 
scrofula by the touch of his hand. Hence, this disease was 
called the " king's evil ;" and for seven centuries those 
afflicted with it were, at times, presented to the king to be 
cured in this way. 

4. Edward dying without heirs, the crown was conferred 
by the clergy and nobles upon Harold, son of Earl Godwin, 
the most powerful nobleman of the time, whose daughter 
Edward had married. Harold was also, through his 
grandmother, a descendant of Sweyn, the Danish king. 
His right to the throne was, however, disputed by his 
brother Tus'tig, who, with the aid of the kings of Scotland 
and ]STorway, was enabled to raise a large army, which was 

3 . What wass the character of Canute ? What other Danish kings reigned ? 
What is said of Edward the Confessor ? 

4. Who succeeded him ? What victory did Harold gain ? 



160 ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1066. 

defeated by the English, forces under Harold, after a severe 
battle fought near the Der'went River, in the northern part 
of England (Sept. 25, 1066), 

5. Three days after this battle, a more powerful com- 
petitor for the throne landed on the southeastern shore of 
England, with a large and finely equipped army. This 
was William, Duke of Normandy, to whom Edward had 
bequeathed the throne, and whose claim was sanctioned by 
the Pope; while Harold, who, it was said, had sacredly 
promised not to dispute William's claim, was viewed by 
many as guilty of usurpation and perjury. Harold, not- 
withstanding his recent conflict with the Norwegians, 
marched with all the forces he could collect to oppose the 
Normans. The battle, which was long and bloody, was 
fought near Hastings,* and resulted in the entire defeat of 
the Saxons, Harold himself being slain (Oct. 14, 1066). 
This ended the Saxon dynasty, and gave the control of the 
kingdom to William, who, two months afterward, was for- 
mally crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey 
(Dec, 25, 1066). 

NOKMAi* Kl^GS. 

6. William I., surnamed the Conqueror, was a descend- 
ant of the famous duke Eollo, to whom Charles the Simple 
had ceded Normandy about 150 years previously. He was 
not only a brave and skilful general, but an able statesman ; 
and, after subduing all the Anglo-Saxon leaders who op- 
posed his rule, he, by severe but judicious regulations, 
firmly established the government, and effectually protected 
the country from foreign invasions. The Saxon population 
was, however, reduced to a condition of abject bondage to 
the great Norman barons, among whom most of the lands 

* On the site of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of England. (See Map.) 



5. Who invaded England ? On what did William hase his claim to the throne ? 
Where was Harold defeated ? What followed the battle of Hastings ? 

6. Who was William the Conqueror ? What was his character ? By what 
measures did he complete the conquest ? What was the condition of the Saxons ? 



A.». 1087.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 161 

were divided as a reward for their services, according to 
the usages of the feudal system. The laws of Edward the 
Confessor were not, however, abolished ; and some of the 
Saxon nobles sat in council with the Norman counts. 

7. William instituted the custom of ringing the curfew- 
bell in the evening, as a signal that the people should ex- 
tinguish their lamps and fires, either to prevent conflagra- 
tions, or secret assemblies of those who were hostile to his 
government. One of his most useful acts was to cause the 
compilation of the Domesday Booh, which was a register 
of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting was his favor- 
ite amusement ; and in order to make a new forest near 
his residence, he laid waste a tract of country extending 
thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolishing 
houses and even churches, but making no compensation for 
the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made a 
crime of greater enormity than murder. He died during 
an invasion of France in the twenty-third year of his reign 
(1087). 

8. William II., surnamed Rufus, the Red, from the 
color of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by 
the will of his father, while his elder brother Eobert as- 
sumed the government of Normandy. William inherited 
the courage and much of the ability of his father, but was 
more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much dis- 
turbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, 
which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged 
war with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this period 
the first crusade occurred; and Robert, wishing to join it, 
sold to William his duchy of Normandy (1095), the latter 
raising the money to pay for it by forced levies upon his 
subjects, even compelling the convents to melt their plate 
in order to furnish their quota. After a reign of 13 years, 



7. What was the curfew ? The Domesday Book ? The New Forest ? 

8. What was the character of William II. ? What were the chief events of hia 
reign ? How was his death caused ? Why was it considered a just retribution ? 



162 ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. I>. 1135, 

he was accidentally shot while hunting in the New Forest 
(1100). The people viewed this as a just retribution ; for 
where the Conqueror had destroyed the homes of the 
Saxons, his son prematurely and miserably perished. 

9. Henry I. (surnamed Beauclerh, the ScJiolar), the 
younger brother of William II., succeeded him ; Eobert, 
the elder brother, being absent in the Holy Land. The 
latter, on his return, again received Normandy ; but some- 
time afterward, war arising between the brothers, Robert 
was made prisoner, sent to England, and confined in a 
castle in Wales till his death. The government of Henry 
was characterized by severity ; and so strict and impartial 
was he in administering the laws, that he was styled the 
" Lion of Justice." His private life was, however, very im- 
moral ; and he was so deceitful and treacherous that even 
his greatest favorites distrusted him. The latter part of 
his life was saddened by the loss of his only son, who was 
drowned on his passage from Normandy; after which 
event, it is said, Henry was never seen to smile. His death 
occurred in 1135. 

10. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, al- 
though it had been his cherished wish that his daughter 
Matilda should have the throne. This princess, whose first 
husband was the emperor of Germany, and who afterward 
married Geoffrey Plan-tag' e-net, Earl of Anjou, raised an 
army, and having defeated Stephen and made him a pris- 
oner, was declared queen of England (1141). She, how- 
ever, soon disgusted all her English friends and supporters 
by her despotic and arrogant behavior ; and Stephen was 
enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled to 
flee. 

11. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, 
made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally 

9. Who succeeded William II. ? What is said of Robert ? Describe the govern- 
ment of Henry I. What was his character ? Effect of the loss of Prince Henry ? 

1 0. Who succeeded Henry I. ? What was done by Matilda ? 

1 1 . What was done by Henry Plantagenet ? From what did the country suffer! 



A.D. 1154.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 163 

reconciled to the king, being adopted by him as his son 
and successor ; soon after which, on the death of Stephen, 
he became king (1154). During the reign of Stephen, on 
account of the weakness of the government, the country 
suffered greatly from the violence and rapacity of the feudal 
barons, each of whom occupied a fortified castle, from 
which, at the head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he 
sallied forth day and night to plunder and oppress the in- 
habitants. Stephen was the last of the direct Norman line. 

The Plantagekets. 

12. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets,* had mar- 
ried Eleanor, duchess of Guienne {ghe-en'), the divorced 
queen of Louis VIL, king of France ; and thus, at his ac- 
cession, he became the ruler not only of England but of the 
greater part of France. His first acts were to reduce the 
refractory nobles to obedience; and, dispossessing them of 
their strongholds, to compel them to discontinue their law- 
less violence and pillage. His next object was to reform 
the abuses and correct the vices of the clergy, who, being 
by the institutions of William the Conqueror, amenable 
only to ecclesiastical authority, set the common laws of the 
realm at defiance. 

18. In this undertaking, he met with determined opposi- 
tion from Thomas a Becket, a man of great talent and fear- 
less courage, who, holding the highest office in the Church 
(that of Archbishop of Can'ter-bu-ry), considered it his duty 
to defend the authority and privileges of his order, not- 
withstanding he had been elevated to this great dignity by 
the friendship and partiality of Henry II. At a grand 
council held at Clarendon (1164), the king presented six- 

* Plantnqenet means, in French, broom-plant ; and was given to this family, it is said, because 
one of their ancestors had done penance by scourging himself with twigs of that plant. 



1 2. How did Henry enlarge his dominions ? What did he attempt to accom- 
plish ? 

13. Who opposed him ? What was the character of Becket? What were the 
'* Constitutions of Clarendon V What was the conduct of Becket ? 



164 ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ».1170. 

teen propositions, called the " Constitutions of Clarendon," 
one of which was that clergymen accused of any crime 
should be tried by the ciyil courts ; while the others were 
designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical authority, 
and make it subservient to the civil power. To these prop- 
ositions Becket, after great resistance, reluctantly gave his 
assent; but, afterward attempting to evade them, he was 
condemned by a council especially called by the king to 
consider his offence. 

14. He then secretly departed from England, and took 
refuge with the king of Prance, by whom, as well as by the 
Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last 
becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and 
resumed his high office ; but he again opposed the royal au- 
thority ; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, 
" Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me of this in- 
solent priest?" Four knights, construing this as a com- 
mand, immediately proceeded to the residence of the prel- 
ate, and, pursuing him into the cathedral, barbarously slew 
him before the altar (1170). 

15. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on 
hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for 
the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced the sincerity 
of his repentance by acts of the severest penance, consent- 
ing to go as a pilgrim to the tomb of the murdered prelate, 
now canonized as a saint and martyr, and for miles of the 
way walked barefoot over the flinty road, marking his steps 
with blood. Independently of its atrocity, nothing could 
have been more disastrous to the king's cause than the 
murder of Becket ; for the Church party gained more by the 
death of their champion than all his best efforts could have 
won for them if he had lived, talented and determined as 
he was; and Henry only obtained pardon from the Roman 



14. By whom was Becket supported ? What led to his assassination ? 

1 5. What was its effect on Henry ? On the cause of the Church ? 



A. I>. 1172.] EHGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 165 

pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely to the 
wishes and injunctions of the holy See. 

16. Conquest of Ireland. — One of the most important 
events of this reign was the conquest of Ireland, which 
Henry completed in 1172. . Ireland, anciently called Hi- 
hernia, was peopled by a race similar to the Britons, but 
little is known of them before the fourth century. Each 
province had its separate king, but was dependent upon 
the monarch who held his court at Tara. In the fifth 
century the people were converted to Christianity, chiefly 
through the efforts of the renowned St, Patrick. From the 
sixth to the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for its 
progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned 
men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been 
established. For three centuries it was much harassed by 
the Northmen or Danes ; but in 1014, the latter were ut- 
terly defeated in a great battle fought at Clon'tarf, near 
Dublin. 

17. Some years before the death of Becket, Henry ob- 
tained permission of the Pope to subdue the island; but 
it was not until 1172 that he accomplished this object. 
One of the five subordinate kings having been expelled 
from his province, and having taken refuge in England, 
succeeded in enlisting a force from the Anglo-Norman 
nobles and adventurers, with which he regained his king- 
dom. The English then so rapidly prosecuted the con- 
quest of the country, that the next year Henry went there, 
and, having received the submission of most of the native 
chiefs, committed the government of the island to a viceroy 
whom he appointed. 

18. The last sixteen years of Henry's life were embittered 
by family dissensions, his three oldest sons combining with 
Louis, king of France, to deprive him of his throne. At 



1 6. When was Ireland conquered ? Give a sketch of its early history. 

1 7. How was the conquest effected ? 

1 8. What embittered the close of Henry's life ? Give an account of this. 



1G6 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1189. 

the same time his French dominions were threatened by 
a revolt, and the northern part of England was invaded 
by the king of Scotland. Henry, however, triumphed 
over all his enemies. But these troubles were no sooner 
pacified than similar family discords broke out, his sons 
being encouraged in their disobedience and unnatural 
hostility by Queen Eleanor, their mother, who had become 
enraged against the king for his licentiousness, and par- 
ticularly on account of his attachment to Rosamond Clif- 
ford, styled in the ballads of the time the "Fair Kosa- 
inond." 

19. Eleanor, attempting to flee the kingdom, was ar- 
rested and kept in close confinement. The king's eldest 
son, Henry, died of a fever, his second son Geoffrey (jef're) 
was killed in a tournament in France, and Richard, the 
third son, joined the king of France in a war against 
his father, so that Henry was compelled to submit to 
a very humiliating treaty of peace. His death occurred 
a short time afterward (1189). He was, undoubtedly, a 
very able monarch, and did much to establish the royal 
authority in opposition to the violence of the feudal barons, 
and to the exorbitant claims and pretensions of the clergy. 
He was a patron of learning and art, and many Gothic 
edifices of great splendor were erected during his reign. 
The simple arts of civilized life also made considerable 
progress during the same period. Henry was succeeded 
by Richard, afterward styled, on account of his martial 
courage, Cceur de Lion — the Lion-hearted. 

20. Richard I., Cceur de Lion (kyur duh le-ong). — ■ 
This monarch, being ambitious of military glory, embarked 
in the third crusade, and gained several important vic- 
tories in the Holy Land over the renowned Saladin. On 
his return, he was arrested in Germany ; and, by the order 

19. What were the last events of Henry' s reign? Date of his death ? His charac- 
ter? His successor? 

20. In what enterprise did Eichard I. engage ? What delayed his return ? Who 
plotted against him ? 



A. ». 1199.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 167 

of Henry VI., emperor of Germany, whom he had offended 
in Palestine, was confined in a dungeon, until his subjects 
paid a large sum of money for his deliverance (1194). 
During his absence, Philip, king of France, had seduced 
John, Richard's brother, from his allegiance ; and both had 
plotted for the destruction of Richard, with the design of 
obtaining possession of his dominions. 

21. The rest of Richard's reign was occupied in conten- 
tion with Philip; and after much petty and indecisive 
war, he was mortally wounded in an attack upon a castle 
in France; held by a rebellious vassal (1199). The character 
of this monarch is one of the most romantic to be found in 
history, and displays a love of adventure, a military daring, 
and a strength and skill in feats of arms, unsurpassed in 
ancient or modern times. His people, oppressed by the 
taxes which were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless 
projects, were yet proud of his fame, though he accom- 
plished nothing for their benefit, nor advanced in any 
respect the prosperity of the country. He, indeed, spent 
but fourteen months in his kingdom during the ten years 
of his reign. 

22. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded him, with 
the consent of the people, although Arthur, Geoffrey's son, 
was the rightful heir. This young prince, having fallen 
into the power of his uncle, was imprisoned, and, it is said, 
cruelly murdered by him. Philip, king of France, sum- 
moned John, as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine (alc-we- 
tain'), to answer for this offence before a court of peers ; 
but he refused to obey the summons, and was accordingly 
branded as a murderer, and adjudged to lose all his French 
territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in con- 
quering, and annexed them to his own dominions. Hence, 
John received the surname of Lackland. 



21. When and how did his death occur ? Describe his character. 

22. Who succeeded Richard I. ? What was the fate of Prince Arthur ? Wha* 
caused John to lose his French territories ? 



168 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.». 1215. 

23. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stepheti 
Langlon, a man of great talent and unblemished character, 
to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to 
give his consent ; whereupon Innocent placed the kingdom 
under an interdict, in consequence of which the churches 
were closed, the dead were refused Christian burial, and all 
other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, was 
formally excommunicated by Innocent, his people were ab- 
solved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn injunction 
was placed upon Philip of France to take possession of the 
kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly surren- 
dered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold them 
as his obedient vassal, and pay to him an annual tribute 
(1213). Philip, attempting to carry out his design of con- 
quering England, sustained a great disaster in the loss of 
his fleet, which was attacked by the English and destroyed. 
This was the first naval action of importance between the 
English and French. 

24. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under 
the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent 
to a series of propositions designed to diminish the royal 
prerogatives and secure the liberties of the subjects by 
established principles. This, John steadily refused, until a 
large army had been raised by the barons, and the city of 
London taken ; when he finally submitted, and signed the 
famous Magna Charta (the Great Charter) at Eun-ny- 
mede' (June 15, 1215). One of the most important articles 
of this instrument was, that "no delay should take place 
in doing justice to every one; and no freeman should be 
taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, 
outlawed, or banished, unless by the legal judgment of Ms 
peers" This famous charter, although granted to the 



23. How was John compelled to submit to the Pope ? What naval action with 
the French occurred ? 

24. What caused a contest with the barons ? How was he compelled to sign 
Magna Charta ? What important article was contained in it ? How is this instru- 
ment regarded 9 



A. D. 1264.] EKGLAKD IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 169 

nobles only, protected the rights of all, and is justly re- 
garded as the palladium of English liberty. 

25. John attempted afterward to resist the execution of 
this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercena- 
ries, by means of which he perpetrated the most atrocious 
cruelties, and compelled the authors and supporters of 
Magna Oharta to flee the country. In the midst of the 
troubles which this excited, his death fortunately occurred, 
and thus saved the people from the misery and disaster of a 
prolonged civil war (1216). The character of John was 
despicable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its 
prominent traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. 
He was succeeded by his son Henry, then in his tenth year. 

26. Henry III. — During the first part of this reign, the 
country was governed by the guardians of the young king, 
and was much disturbed by wars with France. After 
attaining the age of majority, Henry had frequent disputes 
with the barons, who compelled him to confirm the Great 
Charter in the most solemn manner. They nevertheless 
continued to oppose the royal authority, in consequence of 
the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submission to the 
influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both of church 
and state were filled. 

27. Through the efforts of Simo?i de Mont' fort, Earl of 
Leicester (les'ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the 
great council to regulate the kingdom ; and to this arrange- 
ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterward 
arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil war 
ensued ; and the king's forces were defeated at Lew'es, and 
he and his son, Prince Edward, were taken^ prisoners (1264). 
This placed the government mainly under the control of 

25. What was John's subsequent conduct? When did he die? What is said 
of his character ? Who was his successor ? 

26. How was the government at first conducted under Henry ? What led to 
dispute with the barons ? 

27. What was done through the influence of Simon de Montfort ? What led to 
the battle of Lewes ? What was its result ? What did Leicester do to strengthen 
his influence ? How is this considered ? 



170 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.B.I 2 72. 

Leicester, who, in order to strengthen his influence, sum- 
moned a council (now styled a parliament), and gave 
seats in it not only to the barons and knights, but to the 
representatives of the boroughs, or towns (1265). This is 
considered the first institution of the House of Commons — 
a branch of the English legislature, which, representing 
the will of the great body of the people, has ever proved the 
chief bulwark of the political and civil liberty of the 
country. 

28. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement 
in which he had been kept by Leicester, raised an army ; and, 
in the battle of Eres'ham, entirely defeated the forces of 
Leicester, who, w r ith his eldest son, was among the slain 
(1265). This placed Henry again on the throne; and 
Prince Edward having by prudent measures restored gen- 
eral tranquillity, by infusing a wiser and more popular 
spirit in the government, went on a crusade to the Holy 
Land. Before his return, his father died (1272), after the 
exceedingly long reign of fifty-six years. Henry was mild 
and pacific in his disposition, but possessed neither the 
talents nor force of character required to cope successfully 
with the difficulties of so disturbed a period. England, 
however, increased in wealth and influence during this 
reign, and Avidely extended her commercial relations with 
other countries. 

29. Edward I. — The first important event of this reign 
was the conquest of Wales, which Edward undertook 
because Leiv-el'lyn, prince of that country, refused to do him 
the homage which he owed as a vassal. The conquest was 
completed in 1283 ; Lewellyn being executed as a traitor, and 
the government of Wales conferred upon the king's eldest 
son, called the " Prince of Wales " — a title ever afterward 
borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. This event 

28. How did Henry regain his throne? When did he die? What was his 
character ? What progress was made during his reign ? 

29. What was the first important event ot tht reign of Edward I. ? Why was 
Wales attacked ? What was the result ? 



A.». 1298.] ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 171 

was followed by a cruel persecution of the Jews, who were 
at last, to the number of 16,000, banished from the country. 

30. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the rest of 
this reign. A lexander III., king of that country, h aving died 
without heirs, numerous competitors arose for the throne, 
the most noted of whom were John Ba'li-ol and Robert 
Bruce, the former being the grandson of a second daughter, 
and the latter a son of a third daughter, of David, the brother 
of a previous king. A furious dispute haying arisen in the 
Scotch parliament, as to the succession, the matter was 
referred to the arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance 
with the unanimous opinion of all the great lawyers of 
Europe, decided in favor of Baliol, as being the most direct 
descendant, and he was accordingly placed upon the throne. 

31. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the 
circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to 
him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the 
English king; and he subsequently so harassed him by 
frequent and degrading commands, that Baliol was finally 
provoked into a refusal to comply, determining to make a 
stand for his own and his people's liberty. He was, how- 
ever, unsuccessful; for Edward, invading Scotland with a 
large army, defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar (1296), 
took him prisoner, and carried him captive to England. He 
was afterward released, and died in obscurity, in France. 

32. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a 
noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- 
feated an English army of 40,000 men, near Stirling, and 
committed great ravages in the north of England (1297). 
The next year, however, Edward defeated Wallace, in the 
battle of Fal'JcirJc, and again established his government in 
Scotland. Wallace was never afterward able to gain a 

30. What dispute led to the intervention of Edward I. in the affairs of Scot- 
land ? How was it settled ? 

3 1 . What dishonorable course did Edward pursue ? What led to war ? What 
victory did the English gain ? What became of Baliol ? 

32. What victory did Wallace gain ? Where was he defeated ? His fate ? 



172 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. I>. 1307. 

decisive victory over his country's enemies; although he 
fought bravely for several years, until, having been betrayed 
by one of his own countrymen into the power of Edward, 
that remorseless king sent him to London ; and, in order to 
intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to be executed 
(1305). 

33. The people of Scotland, however, made another 
effort to regain their liberties under Robert Bruce, son of 
the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged the right- 
ful heir to the throne ; and the English were once more 
expelled from the country. But Bruce was defeated by one 
of Edward's generals ; and the king himself marched to com- 
plete the conquest, but was suddenly taken ill, and died, at 
Carlisle (1307), enjoining with his last breath his son and 
successor, Edward, to prosecute the enterprise, until the 
Scots should be entirely subdued. 

34. Edward I. had also carried on war with Philip IV. of 
France, who had formed an alliance with the Scottish king, 
Baliol. He confirmed, but with great reluctance, the Great 
Charter ; and (in 1295) caused the deputies from the bor- 
oughs to meet the other representatives in Parliament, 
stating that "what concerns all should be approved by 
all," — a principle that lies at the foundation of all civil 
and political freedom. Edward was one of the ablest and 
most successful monarchs that ever reigned. He was pol- 
itic and warlike, popular on account of his majestic per- 
sonal appearance, his military success, and his wise meas- 
ures. His efforts to reform and establish the laws gained 
for him the appellation of the English Justinian. 

35. Edward II., unmindful of his father's dying in- 
junction, withdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people 
of that country gradually recovered their freedom. Hav- 



33. What other attempt was made by the Scots to regain their freedom ? How 
did Edward's reign end ? 

34. What were the other events of Edward's reign ? His character? 

3 5 . What account is given of the battle of Bannockburn ? What was the char- 
acter of Edward II. ? How and when did his reisrn end ? 



A. D. 1333.] EHGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 173 

ing, at last, in the seventh year of his reign, inyaded the 
country, he was disastrously defeated by Bobert Bruce, in 
the famous battle of Bannockbum (1314). Of a character 
the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the respect 
of his people, and gave great offence to the nobles by sur- 
rendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. 
Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, Edward's 
queen, took part against him ; and being deserted by his 
subjects, he fell into the hands of his enemies, who kept 
him for some time in prison, but at last caused him to be 
put to death in the most shocking manner (1327). His 
son Edward had previously been declared king. 

36. Edward III. — In consequence of the youth of the 
king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the 
government ; but the real power was possessed by Isabella 
and her paramour (the infamous Mor'ti-mer, a prominent 
baron), both of whom had been accessory to the murder of 
the late king. This occasioned universal disgust and ab- 
horrence ; and the young king soon (1330) found means to 
punish the murderers of his father, Mortimer being seized 
and executed as a common criminal, and Isabella placed in 
confinement, where she was kept until her death. 

37. Eobert Bruce, who had fully achieved the independ- 
ence of Scotland, left the throne to his son David, who at 
the time of his father's death was only five years old. Ed- 
ward, taking advantage of this circumstance, endeavored 
to depose the young king, so as to place Edward Baliol, 
son of the former king, on the throne, he having sworn 
fealty to the English monarch. This the Scots resisted, 
but were severely defeated by Edward in the great battle 
of Halidown Hill (1333), and were again brought into sub- 
jection to the English crown, David fleeing his country, 
and taking refuge in France. 



36. Mention the first events of the next reign. What was done with Mortimei 
and Isabella ? 

37. How was Scotland again subdued by the English ? 



174 EKGLAKD m THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1346. 

38. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire 
possession of the throne of Prance, circumstances seeming 
to favor that project; for Charles IV., the king of that 
country, haying died without heirs, the nation had placed 
his cousin Philip VI. on the throne. But Edward, through 
his mother Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and 
on this ground, notwithstanding that the ancient laws of 
France (the Salic law — i. e., law of the Salian Franks) ex- 
cluded females from the throne, he claimed his right to 
the succession, and proceeded to vindicate it by force of 
arms. Having destroyed the French fleet in a great naval 
battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far infe- 
rior to those of Philip, defeated him in the memorable 
battle of Orecy (Jcres'e). This battle is made particularly 
interesting, not only by the greatness of the victory, but by 
the fact, that in it cannon were for the first time employed 
by the English,* and also as the occasion on which the 
king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black Prince 
(from the color of his armor), commenced his brilliant 
military career (1346). 

39. Edward next took Calais (hal'is), after a long siege ; 
and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with 
English. This city, regarded as the key of France, the 
English retained for nearly two centuries. While Edward 
was thus engaged, the Scottish people had again placed 
David Bruce upon the throne, who, invading England, was 
defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of NevilWs Cross, 
near Dur'ham (1346). This victory was due to the activity 
and heroism of Phi-lip' pa, Edward's queen, who, previous 
to the action, rode through the ranks of the army, exhort- 



* Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in 618 b. C, nearly two thousand years 
before the battle of Crecy. They were also used in different forms in India; and, as early as the 
eighth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gunpowder is generally attributed to Friar 
Bacon, who in 1216 announced its composition; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode ot 
making it was understood. King Edward's cannon were only of the size of duck-guns. 



38. Why did Edward in. claim the French throne ? What battles were fought ? 
What gives particular interest to the battle of Crecy ? 

39. What other events occurred in France and England about the same time ? 



A. D. 1364.] ENGLAND m THE MIDDLE AGES. 175 

ing every man to do his duty, and repel the invaders of their 
country. Having caused David to be lodged in the Tower, 
she joined her husband at Calais. 

40. A truce was concluded, a short time afterward, be- 
tween the French and English monarchs, which was pro- 
tracted by a dreadful plague that swept away many thou- 
sands of the people, not only in England, but in most of 
the other countries of Europe. Philip, king of France, hav- 
ing been succeeded by John (1350), and the country being- 
distracted by factious dissensions, Edward resolved again 
to attack it ; and for this purpose dispatched the Black 
Prince, with an army, to Guienne, while he himself was to 
make an incursion by way of Calais. The former pene- 
trated into the heart of France with an army of 12,000 
men ; but at Poitiers (poi-terz') found himself confronted 
by a splendidly equipped force of 60,000 men, commanded 
by John in person. Desirous to retreat, the Prince offered 
to restore all his conquests and give up the war ; but John 
declining any terms but unconditional surrender, a battle 
ensued, which, owing to the skill and valor of the Black 
Prince, resulted in the entire overthrow of the French, 
John himself being made a prisoner (1356). 

41. John, in accordance with the manners of the times, 
was treated by his conqueror with the most chivalric cour- 
tesy and respect ; but was kept in captivity at London till 
ransomed by his subjects (1360), when he resumed the 
throne ; but, not being able to fulfil the terms of his release, 
he returned to London, where he died the next year (1364). 
Under his successor, war was renewed between the two 
countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, 
although the Black Prince manifested all the qualities of 
an able and enterprising general. The latter, however, sul- 
lied his fair fame by causing an inhuman butchery of all 



40. What protracted the truce ? Give an account of the battle of Poitiers. 

41 . What further account is giveu of King John ? What was clone by the Black 
Prince? When did his death occur? His character ? Who succeeded Edward II J. * 



176 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 377. 

the inhabitants of one of the French towns after it had sur- 
rendered to his arms. Worn out by incessant toil and ex- 
posure, he died (1376), universally esteemed, not only for 
his heroism and skill as a military commander, but for the 
generosity, moderation, and amiability which shed still 
greater lustre on his character. The king survived him 
only a year; and was succeeded (1377) by Richard, the son 
of the Black Prince, then only 11 years of age. 

42. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, pop- 
ular not only for his military success and prudent admin- 
istration, but for his many personal accomplishments. He 
took no important steps without consulting his parlia- 
ment, refused to pay tribute to the Pope as a temporal 
prince, to which John had meanly consented; and so 
greatly encouraged trade, that he has been called the 
" Father of English commerce." Wool was the chief arti- 
cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with 
the ports of the Baltic. During this reign, also, com- 
menced the FIRST ERA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, the 

earliest known work in prose, the Travels of Sir John 
Mandeville, being published about 1360. The famous John 
Wichliffe, and the poets Chaucer (chaw'ser) and Gower, 
also flourished during a part of this reign. 

43. Richard II. — The first part of this reign is noted 
for an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occa- 
sioned by the condition of serfdom in which they were 
kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected by the 
unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of the 
wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the outbreak 
was the imposition of a tax on every person above fifteen 
years of age, and the indignity with which a young maiden, 
the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, the tiler), was 
treated by the brutal tax-gatherers. This so incensed her 
father that he struck the officer dead with his hammer ; 

42. What was the character of Edward HI. ? What is said of his administration ? 
Of commerce ? Of literature ? 

43. What caused the insurrection of Wat Tyler? 



A.D.I 381] EKGLAKD IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 177 

and, being joined by his friends and neighbors, raised a 
revolt, and placed himself at the head of the insurgents. 

44. The populace to the number of 100,000 men as- 
sembled at BlachJieath, near London, broke into the city, 
burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered 
the warehouses, and murdered the archbishop and many 
other persons of distinction. The king haying entered 
upon a conference with Wat Tyler, the latter, it is said, 
acted with so much insolence that Wal' worth, the Mayor of 
London, struck him with his sword; whereupon Tyler 
was immediately dispatched by others of the king's retinue. 
Eichard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of 
the insurgents, and the latter dispersed ; but the nobility 
having raised a large army, the ringleaders were appre- 
hended and executed, and the concessions of the king were 
annulled (1381). This made Eichard very unpopular with 
the common people, for their demands had been reasonable 
and just ; the most important being that villenage or slavery 
should be abolished, the people paying a fixed rent for their 
lands, instead of being bound to do such services as their 
feudal lords might require. Serfdom, however, did not 
entirely cease in England until more than four centuries 
after the date of these events.. 

45. Eichard, although displaying much spirit and cour- 
age in these times of disturbance, was afterward charac- 
terized by indolence and want of capacity. He quarrelled 
with the great officers and distinguished nobles of his court, 
and gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. He 
had banished his cousin Henry, son of John of Gaunt, 
Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel ; and, on 
the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry of 
his estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, 

44. What were the chief incidents of this rebellion ? How was it subdued ? 
What made Richard unpopular with the lower orders? What were their de- 
mands ? How long did serfdom continue ? 

45. What was the character of Richard ? What led to his deposition ? What 
distinguished reformer and poet flourished during this reign ? 



178 EtfGIAJSTD IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1403. 

however, taking advantage of Kichard's absence in Ireland, 
landed with a small force in England ; and so unpopular was 
the king, that the invader was soon joined by a force of 
60,000 men. Kichard was accordingly deposed (1399), and, 
it is said, was soon afterward murdered. During this reign 
"Wickliffe, called by some the " morning star of the Keforma- 
tion," translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were 
much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the 
" Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, 
" The Canterbury Tales." 

46. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had 
no legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the 
fourth son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer was 
living, who was descended from the third son of the same 
monarch; hence this reign was little else than a series 
of insurrections. The most formidable was that excited 
by the Earl of Northumberland and his son, Harry Percy, 
surnamed Hotspur, on account of his fiery temper. This 
young nobleman was distinguished for the battle which, in 
the previous reign, he had fought with the Scots at Otter- 
burn (1388), and on which was founded the famous bal- 
lad of " Chevy Chase." He had also greatly aided Henry 
in his efforts to obtain possession of the kingdom; but, 
afterward quarrelling with him, joined his forces to 
those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh under 
Owen Glen' dower, with the object of placing Mortimer on 
the throne. 

47. A terrific battle was fought near Shrewsbury (1403) ; 
but the rebels were defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, 
was slain. The king and his son took part in the battle, 
and signalized themselves by their feats of strength and 

* Wickliffe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward preached by Luther and 
his followers, in the 16th century. The followers of Wickliffe were called Lollards. 



46. Why had Henry IV. no legal right to the throne ? What formidable insur- 
rection broke out? What was' Percy called? For what was he distinguished ? 
What gives interest to the battle of Otterburn ? 

47. Describe the battle of Shrewsbury. How did religious persecution com 
mence ? By whom was Henry IV. succeeded ? 



A. ». 1420.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 179 

daring. Henry, in order to gain the favor of the Church, 
caused severe laws to be passed against the Lollards, and 
one of them was condemned and burnt at the stake (1401). 
This was the first English subject that was put to death on 
account of his religious opinions. Henry IV. died in 1413, 
and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. 

48. Henry V., during his father's life, had been distin- 
guished for his riotous and disorderly conduct ; and had, on 
one occasion, been committed to prison by the chief-justice, 
whom he had insulted for indicting one of his dissolute com- 
panions. On his accession, however, he dismissed his 
profligate associates and thoroughly reformed his life, retain- 
ing in office the wise ministers of his father, including the 
chief-justice by whom he had been so fearlessly punished. 
Among his first acts was the persecution of the Lollards, 
now a numerous party ; and their leader, Lord Cobliam, 
with many others, was condemned and executed. 

19. Henry next made an attack upon France, which he 
hoped to subdue ; because, during the lunacy of its king, 
Charles VI., it was distracted by disputes as to who should 
have the regency. Having taken Har'fleur, after a long 
siege, he marched against the French army, four times as 
numerous as his own, and totally routed it in the memor- 
able battle of Ag'in-court (1415), 10,000 of the French be- 
ing slain and 14,000 taken prisoners ; while, it is said, the 
English lost only 40. After some other successes, a treaty 
was concluded (1420) at Troyes (tnvah), by which Henry 
was to marry the king's daughter Catharine, and to succeed 
to the French throne on the death of Charles, and the two 
kingdoms were to be united. Two years afterward, he and 
his queen entered Paris with all the pageantry of a royal 
progress, dazzling the inhabitants with the wealth and mag- 
nificence of their future sovereigns ; but in a few months 



48. What was the character of Henry V. ? How did he commence his reign ? 

49. Why did he invade France ? What victory did he gain ? What treaty wag 
made ? When did his death occur ? Who was his successor ? 



180 EKGLAKD IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1437. 

death stopped short the triumphant career of Henry, and 
put an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition 
(1422). He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. 

50. Henry VI., at his accession, was proclaimed, by the 
Parliament, King of France as well as of England ; and his 
uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince 
of his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom, and 
guardian of the infant king. The French king, Charles VI., 
having expired a few months after the death of Henry V., 
his son Charles VII., an energetic prince, asserted his claim 
to the throne in opposition to that of the English king ; 
and a war of several years ensued, in which the French, 
chiefly by the heroism of the wonderful Joan of Arc,* were 
enabled to recover their country from the possession of 
the English, and place their own king, Charles VII., on 
the throne (1437). 

51. Henry, on arriving at the age of majority, showed 
neither the capacity nor the disposition to take control of 
the government. He married Margaret of Anjou, a prin- 
cess whose accomplishments and masculine energy of char- 
acter were well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses 
of her husband. But the incapacity of the king encouraged 
the rival house of York to lay claim to the throne, in be- 
half of Richard, Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's 
third son, who was a man of ability and valor, as well as 
immense wealth. In this pretension Eichard was upheld by 
the greatest nobleman of the kingdom, the renowned Earl 
of Warwick {war' rick), afterward called the King -maker, 
whose means and possessions were so extensive that 30,000 
retainers were constantly supported by him in his various 
castles and manors. An insurrection of the lower orders, 

* See History of France, Section IV., 27, 28. 



50. What led to a war with France during the regency of Bedford? How did 
the French regain their possessions ? 

5 1 . What was Henry's character ? Whom did he marry ? Her character ? What 
led to the claim of Richard, duke of York ? By whom was he supported ? What 
is said of Warwick ? Give an account of Jack Cade's rebellion. 



A. D. 1461.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 181 

under a leader named Jack Cade, broke out about this 
time, but was soon put down, Cade being slain (1450). 

52. The king's government being yery unpopular, Kich- 
ard raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of grievances ; 
and in the battle of St. Albans (awl' bans) defeated the 
royalists (1455), and took the king prisoner. This was the 
first battle in that great civil war styled the " War of the 
Boses" (from the badges of the parties, the Lancastrians 
wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a white rose). This 
war lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve pitched 
battles, and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of Eng- 
land. The next year after the battle of St. Albans, the king 
was restored to his authority ; but the contest soon broke 
out with increased fury, and in the battle of Northampton 
the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of 
Warwick (1460), after which the Duke of York was pro- 
claimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Edward, the 
son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. 

53. The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the 
aid of the northern barons raised a large army, with which, 
in the battle of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, 
who was taken prisoner and put to death (1460). A few 
weeks after this, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick 
and regained possession of the king ; but Edward, son of 
the late Duke of York, joining his forces with those of 
Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- 
ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward 
IV. (1461). 

54. Edward IV. — Queen Margaret, however, was not 
subdued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 
men in the northern counties, with which she encountered 
the forces of Edward and Warwick, in the terrific battle of 

52. What led to the battle of St. Albans? Its result? What civil war was 
commenced by it ? What is said of this war ? What led to the battle of Northamp- 
ton ? What were its consequences ? 

53. What led to the battle of Wakefield? What was its result? How did 
Edward IV. obtain the throne ? 

54. What other efforts were made by Margaret ? With what results ? 



182 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D. 1482. 

Tow'ton; but was totally defeated (1461), and compelled 
with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. During the 
next three years, Margaret made but one effort to recover 
the lost kingdom, but was defeated and compelled to flee to 
France ; a short time after which, Henry fell into the posses- 
sion of the king, and was confined in the Tower at London. 

55. Edward's vices, however, and his marriage with Eliz- 
abeth Gray, a Lancastrian knight's widow, upon whose 
relatives the infatuated monarch showered all his favors, 
so disgusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he 
deserted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with 
Margaret. So popular was this nobleman, that in a few 
days he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled- Edward 
to flee, and placed Henry again on the throne (1471). Dis- 
aster soon followed this- great victory; for Edward landing 
in England with a small force, was soon joined by an im- 
mense army, and regaining possession of London, once 
more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and marched 
against "Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar'net, 
near London. 

56. The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the 
Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a large 
force went over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle 
of Barnet, and slain (1471) ; and, a fortnight afterward, Ed- 
ward gained a decisive victory over the forces of Margaret 
at Tew Jcs' bury, the latter, with her son Edward, being 
among the prisoners. The young prince was cruelly put 
to death by the Dukes of Clarence and G-loster, brothers of 
Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in the Tower. A 
few days after this battle, Henry expired in the Tower, ac- 
cording to general belief, by the murderous hand of the 
cruel and wicked Duke of Gloster. Queen Margaret after- 
ward found a refuge in France, where she died (1482). 

55. Hew did Edward IV. disgust the Earl of Warwick ? How did Henry regain 
the throne ? How did he again "lose it? 

56. Where was Warwick defeated and slain ? Where was Margaret defeated? 
What followed the battle of Tewksbury ? 



A. B. 1483.] EHGLAKD IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 183 

57. Edward, being now secure on the throne, gave him- 
self up to every species of vice and debauchery. He caused 
his brother, Duke of Clarence, to be put to death on a 
charge of treason, being probably instigated to this crime 
by his younger brother, Richard, Duke of Grloster, who was 
noted for his designing character and unrelenting ambition. 
Edward was about to engage in a war with France, when 
he was seized with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). 
During this reign, William Oaxton introduced into Eng- 
land the art of printing, the first printed book being " The 
Game and Playe of Chesse" (1474). 

58. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth 
of twelve years, was proclaimed king; and his uncle, the 
Duke of Gloster, was appointed Protector. This artful and 
wicked prince, obtaining possession of the young king, and 
his brother Eichard, placed them in the Tower ; and caused 
Lord Eivers, their maternal uncle, and Lord Hastings, with 
several other distinguished persons, to be executed on a 
charge of treason. He then gave out that the young 
princes were illegitimate ; and contrived that some of his 
friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, with 
pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the title 
of Richard III. (1483). 

59. Richard III. — The first act of this wicked usurper 
was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to 
nave been smothered in their beds, in the Tower, by his 
orders. But he was not permitted quietly to enjoy the 
fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy was formed against him 
by his former friend, the Duke of Buckingham ; but it 
failed, and Buckingham was seized and executed. The 
nation, however, soon found a deliverer in Henry Tudor, 
Earl of Richmond, the last heir of the house of Lancaster, 

57. State the other events of Edward 1 s reign. When did his death occur ? Who 
introduced the art of printing 't What was the first book printed m England ? 

58. Who was the immediate successor of Edward IV.? How did Kichard, 
Duke of Gloster, obtain the throne ? . 

5 9 . What was the fate of the two young princes ? Of the Duke of Buckingham ? 
"How was this reign terminated ? Who was proclaimed king at Bosworth ? 



184 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1485. 

who, landing at Mil' ford Haven, in Wales, was soon joined 
by sufficient forces to cope with those of the usurper. An 
engagement took place at Bosworth Field, in which the 
forces of Richard were defeated, and he himself, fighting 
desperately in the conflict, was slain. Richmond was pro- 
claimed king on the battle-field, by the title of Henry VII 
(1485). 



i 



l< 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

827. Egbert unites the Saxon kingdoms. Commencement of 

the English monarchy. 
871. Accession of Alfred the Great. Reigned 30 years. 
' 1013. Sweyn, the first Danish king. Reigned about 6 months. 
1017. Canute the Great, sole monarch of England. Reigned 19 

years. 
1042. Edward the Confessor. Saxon line restored. Reigned 

24 years. 
1066. Harold declared king. Reigned about one year. 
1066. Battle of Hastings. Harold defeated by William (I.) of 

Normandy. 
1087. William II. (Rufus). Reigned 13 years. 
1100. Henry I. (Beauclerk). Reigned 35 years. 
1135. Stephen (of Blois). Defeated by Matilda (1139). 
1154. Henry II. (Plantagenet). Reigned 35 years. 
1170. Death of Thomas & Becket. 
1172. Conquest of Ireland. 
1189. Richard I. (Coeur de Lion.) Ransomed by his subjects 

(1194). Reigned 10 years. 
1199. John (Lackland). Reigned 17 years. 
' 1215. Magna Charta signed. 
1216. Henry III. Reigned 56 years. 

1264. Battle of Lewes. Henry and Prince Edward i.iide 

prisoners. 

1265. House of Commons instituted by Leicester. 
" Battle of Evesham. 

1272. Edward I. Reigned 35 years. 

1283. Conquest of Wales. Prince Lewellyn executed. 

1296. Battle of Dunbar ; the Scots defeated. 

1298. Battle of Falkirk: Wallace defeated. 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 185 

1305. "Wallace taken prisoner and executed. 
1307. Edward n. Reigned 20 years. 

1314. Battle of Bannockburn. Edward defeated by Robert Bruce, 
1327. Edward III. Reigned 50 years. 
1333. Battle of Halidown Hill ; the Scots defeated. 
1346. Battle of Crecy ; the French defeated by Edward III. 
1 -\ " Battle of Neville's Cross ; Scots defeated. 

1356. Battle of Poitiers ; French defeated by the Black Prince. 

1376. Death of the Black Prince. 

1377. Richard II. Reigned 12 years. 
1381. Insurrection of Wat Tyler. 
1388. Battle of Otterburn, between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas. 

1 1399. Henry IV. Reigned 14 years. 

' 1401. A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake. 

1403. Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain. 

1413. Henry V. Reigned 9 years. 

1415. Battle of Agincourt. 

1420. Treaty of Troyes. 

1422. Henry VI. Reigned 39 years. 

1450. Jack Cade's rebellion. 

1455. Battle of St. Albans ; the royalists defeated. 

1460. Battle of Northampton. King Henry taken prisoner. 

1461. Battle of Wakefield. Duke of York captured and slain. 
{ 1461. Edward IV. proclaimed king. Reigned 22 years. 

" Battle of Tow ton. Queen Margaret defeated by Edward 
and Warwick. 
1471. Battle of Barnet. Warwick slain. King Henry assassinated. 
" Battle of Tewksbury. Queen Margaret defeated, and Prince 
Edward assassinated. 
1474. Art of Printing introduced into England. 

1482. Death of Queen Margaret, in France. 

1483. Edward V. Reigned 74 days. 
1483. Richard III. Reigned 2 years. 

„ 1485. Battle of Bosworth. Henry VII. proclaimed king. 



186 England in the middle ages. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGB 

1. State all you can of Alfred the Great and his successes 157-159 

2. Of Edward the Elder, Athelstan, and Ethelred 157-158-159 

3. Of Sweyn, Edmund Ironside, and Canute 158-159 

4. Of Harold Harefoot, Hardicanute, and Edward the Confessor 159 

5. Give a history of the Danish invasions of England 147-148-157 

6. State what you can of Harold and his career 159-160 

7. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the ac- 

cession of Egbert to the battle of Hastings — 184 

8. Give an account of William I. and the events in his reign 160-161-189 

9. Of William n. and the events in his reign 161-162-189 

10. Of Henry I., surnamed Beau clerk, and the events in his reign 162 

11. Of the contest between Stephen and Matilda 162 

12. How did Henry Plantaganet get to be king of England ? 162-163 

13. Name the principal events in the reign of Henry n 163-164-165-166 

14. Give the narrative in relation to Thomas a, Becket 163-164 

15. Give the early history of Ireland 165 

16. What account can you give of Queen Eleanor 166 

17. Sketch the character and career of Richard Cceur de Lion 166-167 

IS. Of King John (Lackland) and the events in his reign 167-168-169 

19. Give the history and character of Magna Charta 168-169-172 

20. Sketch the character and reign of Henry IK 169-170 

21. Name the principal events in the reign of Edward 1 170-171-172 

22. Give an account of Robert Bruce, his successes and misfortunes 172-173 

23. Of Edward H. and his reign 172-173 

24. Name the principal events in the reign of Edward III 173-174-175-176 

25. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of 

Hastings to the battle of Poitiers 184-185 

26. Give an account of the Wat Tyler insurrection 176-177 

27. What were the other events in the reign of Richard n. ? 177-178 

28. Give an account of the contest between Henry TV", and Mortimer 178-179 

29. Sketch the character and reign of Henry V 179-180* 

30. What contest for territory took place during the next reign ? 180 

31. Give an account of the contest * 180 

32. State what you can of Queen Margaret 180-181-182 

33. Relate the facts in the career of the Earl of Warwick 180-181-182 

34. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of 

Poitiers to the battle of Barnet 185 

35. What battles were- fought during the reign of Henry VI. ? 181 

36. What was the result in each of the three battles ? , 181 

37. Give a sketch of the character of Edward IV 182-183 

3S. Give an account of the career of the Duke of Gloster (Richard HI.).. . 183-184 

39. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of 

Barnet to the battle of Bosworth 185 

40. What account can you give of Jack Cade's rebellion ? 180-181 

41. Of the Black Prince and his career ? 174-175-176 

42. Of William Wallace, his success and defeat ? 171 

43. Of Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury ? 16S 

44. Of the battle of Hastings, its causes and consequences ? 160 

45. Name, in chronological order, the important events in the history of 

England during the Middle Ages 184-185 



A, D.087.] FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 187 



section iv. 
France during the Middle Ages. 

Extending from the Founding of the Capetian Dynasty (987) to the Mid 
of the Beign of Louis XL (1483). 

1. Hugh Capet. — From the accession of Hugh Cap'et 
(or ha' pet), for about two centuries, the dominions of the 
French kings had but little extent, haying been usurped, 
during the previous weak reigns, by the ambitious and tur- 
bulent nobles. The most important of these minor govern- 
ments were Brit'tany, in the northwest; Normandy, in 
the north; Aquitaine, or Guienne (ghe-en'), and Anjou 
(ahn'joo), in the west; Gas' cony and Na-varre', in the 
southwest; Provence (pro-vahns'), in the southeast; and 
Bur' gundy, Champagne (sham-pan' y a), and Flan'ders, in 
the east and northeast. So that, in fact, only a small 
part of what is now called France, at the period of these 
early Capetian (hah-pe' she-an) monarchs, was under their 
sway; and the history of the period mainly consists of an 
account of the wars resulting from this divided state of the 
country, and of the gradual consolidation of the whole 
into one kingdom. Hugh Capet was an active and prudent 
monarch; and, during his reign of nearly ten years, he 
succeeded in overcoming all opposition to his authority, 
and in enlarging his dominions. At his death (996), he 
left the throne to his son Robert. 

2. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- 

Map Questions.— (Map, pas^e 188.) What countries east and northeast of France ? 
What provinces in the northern part? In the eastern part? Southern part? 
Western part? Central part? Where is Paris? Orleans? Brest? Rochelle? 
Bordeaux? Avignon? Troyes ? Poitiers? Tours? Rheims? Nancy? 

1. What is said of the extent of France? Name the principal minor govern- 
ments, with their situation. Of what does the history of France at this period 
consist ? What is said of Hugh Capet and his reign ? 

2. What were the chief events in the reign of Robert ? What caused a destruc- 
tive pestilence ? What is said of this period ? By whom was Robert succeeded ? 



188 



FKAKCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1000. 



minions, but refused the kingdom of Italy and the empire 
of Germany, which he was invited to accept. The papal 
authority was exercised at this time so severely, that Rob- 
ert was compelled, by excommunication, to divorce his be- 
loved wife Bertha, because she was his fourth cousin. 
During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which had been 
almost universally predicted as the millennium — the end of 




1G- 



P 4 

-So7icesvtt llc 
sAJiimg. "West 



the world. This belief occasioned general neglect and 
idleness ; and a dreadful famine and pestilence was the re- 
sult, which swept away vast multitudes of people, and 
caused the most frightful miseries and crimes. The super- 
stition and ignorance of the people, and the oppression and 
vices of the nobles, made this one of the darkest periods in 



A.D.I 108.] FKAXCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 189 

human history. Eobert died in 1031, and left the throne 
to his son Henry. 

3. Henry I. — This reign is noted for the repeated war3 
which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy — William, 
afterward the Conqueror of England, who successfully de- 
fended his dominions against the attacks of the French 
king. This was the cause of that aversion between the 
English and French monarchs that occasioned so many 
wars during the following reigns. The power of the 
Church was exercised during this reign to put a check to 
the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to procure some 
respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that they might 
cultivate the lands, and thus prevent famine and pestilence. 
This was effected by establishing what was called the Truce 
of God — a religious injunction against all military opera- 
tions, duelling, and other acts of violence, from Wednes- 
day, at sunset, till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and 
holy days. This regulation did much, eventually, to soften 
the ferocity of these terrible times. Henry I. was succeeded 
by his son Philip (1060). 

4. Philip I. was a haughty and unprincipled monarch. 
He engaged in a war with William of Normandy, after the 
conquest of England by the latter, and endeavored to sow 
dissensions between him and his son Eobert. After the 
death of William, he assisted Eobert against William Eu- 
fus, compelling the latter to surrender Normandy to his 
brother. He was excommunicated by the Pope four times, 
for seizing by violence, and illegally marrying, the Countess 
of Anjou, whom he refused to deliver up to her lawful hus- 
band. During this reign Peter the Hermit preached the 
First Crusade (1095). Philip was succeeded by his son 
Louis (1108). 

5. Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, was an energetic and 

3. For what is the reign of Henry I. noted ? What was the " Truce of God ?" 
What led to its institution ? What was the effect of it ? Who succeeded Henry 1. ? 

4. What is said of Philip I. ? What were the chief events of his reign ? Who 
was his successor ? 



190 FKAKCE m THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 180. 

prudent king. He did important service to France by 
keeping the great yassals of the crown under control, and 
gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large 
numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition 
of serfdom, in which they had been kept by the iron hand 
of the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called 
Communes, or commons (afterward the third estate), and 
consisted of citizens leagued together for mutual interest 
and defence. Henry I., of England, having regained Nor- 
mandy, Louis attempted to dispossess him ; but, although 
he raised a large army, the great barons refused to assist 
him, believing that the balance of power would be destroy- 
ed if Normandy were annexed to the French king's domin- 
ions. He was succeeded by his son Louis (1137). 

6. Louis VII., by marrying Eleanor, became possessed 
of Guienne and Poitou (pwah-too') ; but, during the expe- 
dition which he undertook to the Holy Land, and in which 
he was accompanied by his queen, he was so provoked by 
the freedom and levity of her conduct that he divorced 
her, and thus lost her great possessions. These he had the 
mortification of seeing annexed to the dominions of Henry, 
Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and after- 
ward king of England (Henry II.), whom Eleanor had mar- 
ried after her divorce from the French king. In this way 
Henry II. came into possession of more extensive territories 
in France than those of the French king himself. Louis 
was succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 

7. Philip II. {Augustus). — During this reign, the au- 
thority of the monarch was more generally acknowledged 
than it had been since the accession of Hugh Caj)et, and 
the country became more united and powerful. This was 

5. What was the character of Louis VI. ? How did he benefit France ? What 
were the " Communes ?" What caused a war between him and Henry I. of Eng- 
land ? Who succeeded him ? 

6. How did Louis VII. extend his dominions ? How were they afterward dimin- 
ished ? Who was his successor ? 

7. What is said of the reign of Philip n. ? State the principal events of it. 
How did Philip extend his dominions ? What other measures did he accomplish ? 
Who succeeded him ? 



A. D. 1217.] FRAKCE IX THE MIDDLE AGES. 191 

partly due to the great ability and prudence of Philip, who 
knew how to make himself respected and feared. He en- 
gaged in the third Crusade with Ki chard L, of England ; 
but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's fame, he 
deserted him; and,' returning home, basely plotted with 
Eichard's brother John to seize his dominions. Failing in 
this, he afterward obtained the English provinces in France 
by means of the wickedness and cowardice of John. He 
thus added to his dominions, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, 
Poitou, and Louvaine ; and afterward extended his sway to 
the Pyrenees. He greatly improved the discipline of the 
army, encouraged learning, and walled and payed Paris and 
several other towns. After a reign of 43 years, he left his 
kingdom in a state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223). 

8. The Albigenses. — The reign of Philip II. is also 
noted for the persecution of the Al'bi-gen-ses, — a numerous 
sect of dissenters from the Church of Rome, who arose in 
the commencement of the 13th century, in Languedoc 
(lati'ghe-doc), and were supported by Eaymond VL, Count 
of that province. They received their name from Albigeois 
(al'be-zhivali), the district in which they first appeared. 
During the reign of Philip Augustus (1209), Pope Innocent 
III. caused a crusade to be preached against them, excom- 
municating both them and Count Eaymond ; and, in the 
war which ensued, many of their towns were taken, and the 
most dreadful massacres perpetrated. Eaymond was, at 
last, obliged to submit to the authority of the Pope. Dur- 
ing the war, Simon de Montfort, the elder,* took an active 
part against the Albigenses, and was conspicuous for his 
cruelty and perfidy. He was killed at the siege of Toulouse 
(1218). 

9. Louis VIII. was a feeble monarch ; but the wise 

* Father of the famous Earl of Leicester, who founded the English House of Commons. 



8. Who were the Albigenses ? Why were they so called ? Give an account of the 
crusade against them. What is said of Simon de Montfort ? 

9. What was the character of Louis Vm. ? What was the state of France dur- 
ing his reign ? Describe the crusade against the Albigenses. 



192 FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. B. 1249. 

policy of Philip Augustus had given such an impulse to 
affairs, that France continued to be triumphant oyer the 
English, who, during the reign of Henry III., made 
repeated attacks upon the French territories. Another 
crusade was undertaken against the Albigenses by Louis 
VIII., under the authority of the Pope. "With a large 
army, he laid siege to Avignon (ah-ven'yong), but was kept 
so long under its walls that 20,000 men perished by dis- 
ease and famine; and Louis himself died a short time 
after he received the submission of the conquered in- 
habitants (1226). 

10. Louis IX. (Saint Louis), son and successor of Louis 
VIIL, was but a youth at the time of his accession ; and 
the government was administered by his mother, Blanche 
of Castile (kas-teel'), during whose regency the war against 
the Albigenses was closed by the complete submission of 
Count Kaymond, and the cession, by formal treaty, of 
Languedoc to the crown of France (1229). The Inquisi- 
tion was established at Toulouse (too-loos'), and all who re- 
fused to conform to the tenets of the Church of Eome 
were mercilessly punished. The remnant of the Albigenses 
emigrated to the east, and are lost sight of in history a 
short time after these events. 

11. Louis, although uninstructed in letters, imbibed the 
most excellent principles of conduct from his mother, and 
strictly observed them after he attained the age of majority. 
He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the Sultan of 
Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and ransomed by his sub- 
jects for an immense sum ($1,500,000). Eeturning after 
an absence of five years, he ruled with so much candor and 
moderation, and with such a conscientious regard for jus- 
tice and rectitude, that he was universally esteemed, and 



1 0. Who succeeded Louis VIII. ? Who at ftrfct administered the government ? 
How was the war against the Albigenses closed ? What followed the treaty ? 

1 1 . What was the character of Louis IX. and of his government ? What cru- 
sades did he undertake ? When and how did his death occur ? By whom was he 
canonized ? Why ? 



A. B. 1285.] FBAtfCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 193 

was enabled to promote the true progress and happiness of 
his people. In another crusade, undertaken to check the Mo- 
hammedans in Syria, he crossed to Africa, and died of the 
plague near Tunis (1270). Louis, some years after his death, 
was formally canonized by the Pope (Boniface VIII.) for his 
many virtues and his efforts and sacrifices for the cause of 
Christianity (1297). During the troubles between Henry 
III. of England and his barons, Louis was chosen umpire 
by both parties, but his decision was disregarded. 

12. Philip III., called the Hardy (because his constitu- 
tion had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that 
carried off his father), continued the war against the Moors ; 
and, with the aid of his uncle, Charles of Anjou, king of 
Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submission. Charles, 
who had but recently acquired possession of Sicily, became 
very odious to the people by his arbitrary government and 
the excesses of his followers ; and this discontent was en- 
couraged by Peter, king of Aragon,* who claimed the 
island. The result was, that, on Easter day (1282), when 
the church-bell sounded for vespers, the Sicilians rushed 
on all the French they could meet with, and massacred 
them without mercy. About 8,000 persons perished by this 
dreadful event, which is known in history as the Massacre 
of the Sicilian Vespers. Peter of Aragon," by this means, 
succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou from Sicily; and 
Philip III., taking up the cause of his uncle, made an un- 
successful invasion of Aragon, and died a short time after- 
ward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and fatigue 
(1285). 

13. Philip IF. (le Bel — the Fair) succeeded at the age 

* Aragon was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of Spain; and Peter 
rested his claim to Sicily on his marriage with Constance, daughter of a previous king of th-it 
island. 

12. Who succeeded St. Louis? Why was Philip III. called the Hardy? How 
did he end the war against the Moors ? What led to the " Massacre of the Si- 
cilian Vespers ?" Describe it. Why did Philip III. invade Aragon ? What caused 
his death? 

1 3. Who succeeded Philip III. ? What is said of the reign of Philip IV. ? De- 
scribe the war which he carried on with Edward I. What caused a war with the 
Flemings ? Describe it. For what were the Flemings noted ? 

9 



194 FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1317. 

of 17. His reign is one of the most important in French 
history. He carried on a war of seven years with Edward I. 
of England, in order to obtain Guienne ; but finally con- 
sented to a treaty relinquishing his claims to that duchy. 
He obtained possession of Flanders ; but governed it so op- 
pressively that the people (called Flemings) rose in revolt 
and massacred the French to the number of 3,000. Philip 
endeavored to reduce the Flemings to submission ; but this 
brave people successfully defended their liberties against 
his assaults. The Flemings were, at this period, greatly 
distinguished for their skill in weaving, and in other in- 
dustrial arts. 

14. This reign is particularly noted for the contest which 
arose between the king and the Pope (Boniface VIII.), on 
account of the attempt of the latter to prevent the taxation 
of the clergy. Boniface in vain issued bull after bull, all 
of which were treated with contempt and defiance by 
Philip; who, after the death of Boniface, succeeded in 
placing the archbishop of Bordeaux (jbor-do'), under the 
title of Clement V., on the papal throne, and transferred 
the seat of the papacy from Rome to Avignon, where it re- 
mained for about 70 years. 

15. He also caused the famous order of Knights Templars* 
to be condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and 
immorality ; and the Grand Master and many other indi- 
viduals of the order were burnt to death, while others were 
treated with the most shocking cruelty. The motive of 
the king in this prosecution, was probably the desire to 
possess himself of a part of the immense wealth of the 
order; and the whole procedure was characterized by the 
most shameless perfidy, injustice, and cruelty. Philip died 

* This celebrated religious and military order was founded at Jerusalem in the beginning of 
the twelfth century, for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre, and the pilgrims who journeyed 
thither. It afterward spread all over Europe, and became noted for its vast possessions. It 
was suppressed in England by Edward II. (1309). 

1 4. What caused the contest of Philip IV. with the Pope ? Describe it. What 
was -ts result ? 

1 5. Give an account of the abolition of the order of Knights Templars. What 
was the character of Philip IV. ? What important event occurred in 1302 ? 



A. 0.1322.] FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 195 

a few weeks after this event (1314). His character is that 
of an adroit and energetic monarch, but is deeply stained 
with treachery and despotism. The representatives of the 
Third Estate, or, the Commons, were called to meet with 
the nobility and clergy in the grand council of the nation 
during this reign, in order to give their consent to the levy 
of taxes (1302). 

16. Louis X., surnamed Hutin (disorder, or tumult), 
from the tumultuous conduct of the nobles and clergy, who 
attempted to regain from Louis the powers and privileges 
of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic 
father. He yielded to most of their demands, and issued 
an ordinance enfranchising the serfs within the royal do- 
mains. During his short reign, he was under the influence 
of his uncle, Charles of Valois {val-wati), who employed it 
to destroy Marigny (mah-reen'ye), the former prime-minis- 
ter of Philip the Fair; and this distinguished man was 
condemned and put to death upon a malicious and absurd 
charge of sorcery. On the death of the king (1316), the 
government was administered by his brother Philip, as re- 
gent ; and, the infant son of Louis X. having died, Philip 
became king (1317). 

17. Philip V. (le Long — the Tall) assembled the States- 
General to pronounce upon his right to the throne, which 
was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. ; and a decree was 
issued declaring that females are incapable of inheriting 
the crown of France. This decree being based, as it was 
said, upon the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, was 
called the Sal'ic Law. During this reign, France was the 
scene of dreadful religious persecutions, particularly of the 
Jews, who were put to death in Tou-raine' with the most 
dreadful barbarity. Philip, after a brief reign of five years, 
was succeeded by his brother Charles (1322). 

1 6. Why was Louis X. called Hutin ? What course did he pursue ? What ia 
said of Marigny? How did Philip V. become king? 

1 7. How did Philip V. secure himself on the throne ? What was the Salic law ? 
What persecution took place ? By whom was Philip V. succeeded ? 



196 FKANCE LBT THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. B. 1350 

18. Charles IV. became king by the operation of the 
Salic law, for Philip V. had left daughters but no sons. 
His reign is almost a blank, being only noted for his inva- 
sion of G-uienne, to which he was invited by the troubles of 
Edward II. of England. It was in France that the wicked 
Queen Isabella, sister of Charles IV., plotted with Mortimer 
for the destruction of her unfortunate husband. Charles 
afterward restored Guienne to Edward III. On the death 
of Charles without heirs (1328), the direct line became ex- 
tinct, and Philip of Valois, nephew of Philip the Fair, suc- 
ceeded to the throne. 

Branch of Valois. 

19. Philip VI. soon had to contend with a competitor in 
the person of Edward III. of England, who laid claim to 
the throne of France, as being a direct descendant, through 
his mother, of Philip the Fair. But this claim was deemed 
by the French invalid by the operation of the Salic law ; 
since, if Isabella had no right to the throne, Edward could 
inherit none from her. Edward, after several years, deter- 
mined to enforce his claim ; and having invaded France, 
defeated Philip in the famous battle of Crecy (1346), and 
took Calais. These victories, however, did not give Edward 
the object of his ambitious desires; and, a truce being 
agreed on, he returned to England. Dan' pinny was about 
this time annexed to France, on condition that the king's 
eldest son should thereafter bear the title of Dauphin. The 
Black Plague raged throughout France during this reign 
(1348-9), and carried off vast multitudes of people — 50,000 
in Paris alone. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by 
his son John. 

20. John (le Bon — the Good). — During this reign, the 



18. How did Charles IV. become king ? What is said of his reign ? Of Isabella ? 
Who succeeded Charles IV. ? In what way ? 

1 9. What rival had Philip VI. ? What is said of Edward's claim ? Give an 
account of the war that ensued. What was the result ? What is said of the Black 
Plague ? Who succeeded Philip VI. ? 



A. J>. 1350.] FKAKCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 197 

English, under the Black Prince, again invaded France ; and 
the memorable battle of Poitiers was fought, in which John 
was taken prisoner, and no less than 2,500 of the French 
nobility and chivalry were slain. The king being carried 
to England, his eldest son, Charles, became regent, and dur- 
ing his administration the people, under Mar-eel', head of 
the municipality of Paris, made a desperate struggle to curb 
the despotic power of the monarch and obtain a share in 
the government. The States-General were assembled, and 
granted the privileges demanded ; but these being afterward 
annulled, an insurrection broke out which raged for some 
time, but was terminated by the death of Marcel, and the 
defeat of the popular cause. 

21. At the same time, a frightful insurrection of the 
peasantry burst forth, caused by the hopeless misery in 
which they had been so long kept by the nobles. This re- 
volt is called the Jacquerie {zliah'e-re), from Jacques Bon- 
homme (zhafc bon-om), the name derisively applied to a 
French peasant. The feudal castles were sacked and de- 
stroyed by the insurgents, and their inmates, of every age 
and sex, put to death with shocking barbarity. Being at 
last defeated in an attack upon one of the towns, the peas- 
ants were hunted down on all sides like wild beasts, and 
massacred by thousands ; so that some of the rural dis- 
tricts were almost depopulated, and presented a ghastly 
scene of ruin and desolation. 

22. In the mean time, John, being a prisoner in England, 
in order to obtain his release, consented to surrender a large 
part of his territories ; but to this the States- General would 
not submit ; and Edward III. again invaded France, but 
finally made peace, consenting to release John upon more 
reasonable terms. The latter, after four years' captivity, 



20. What invasion look place during John's reign ? What was its result ¥ 
What events occurred during the regency of Charles ? 

21. What was the Jacquerie f Describe it. How were the peasants treated * 

22. How did John obtain his release ? Why did he return to England ? How 
was the ducal line of Burgundy founded ? 



198 FRANCE LN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1380. 

finally returned to his kingdom, and was greeted with uni- 
versal transports of joy and gratitude by his people ; but 
his son Louis, who had been delivered to the king o^ 
England as a hostage, having escaped, John was so con- 
scientious that he surrendered himself again to his English 
captors, and died a short time after his arrival in England 
(1364). He had previously (1363) given to his favorite son 
Philip the Duchy of Burgundy, in reward for his bravery 
at Poitiers ; and thus was founded that famous ducal line 
of Burgundy which continued more than a century, and 
played so important a part in French history. 

23. Charles V., surnamed the Wise, succeeded his 
father ; and, by means of his prudent measures, did much 
to restore peace and prosperity to his kingdom. He was 
himself of an unwarlike disposition, being fond of study, and 
having a talent for statesmanship rather than for the con- 
duct of military affairs. He raised to the office of Consta- 
ble of France the famous Du Guesclin (ga-klang') one of 
the greatest generals of his age. Although defeated and 
taken prisoner in the battle of Nav-ar-re'te by the Black 
Prince, Du Guesclin, after the death of that great leader, 
pursued an almost uninterrupted career of victory against 
the English, depriving them of nearly all their possessions 
in France. Charles founded the Eoyal Library at Paris, and 
was a generous patron of literature and art. He died in 
1380, two months after the death of the Constable Du 
Guesclin. 

24. Charles VI., the son and successor of Charles V., 
was only twelve years of age at his father's death ; and ac- 
cordingly his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, was made regent. 
Disturbances were occasioned by the efforts of the people 
to release themselves from the unjust and oppressive taxes 
which had been imposed by Philip the Fair and his suc- 

23. What was accomplished by Charles the Wise? What was his character? 
What is said of Du Guesclin ? What did Charles found ? When did he die ? 

24. What insurrection broke out under the regency of the Duke of Anjou? 
What revolt ? Give an account of the battle of Rosebecque. 



A. ©.1422.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 199 

cessors ; and at Paris an insurrection occurred, which was 
with much difficulty subdued. An expedition was under- 
taken to reduce the Flemings, who had revolted against 
their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders ; and the terrible bat- 
tle of Rosebecque (rose'bek) was fought, in which the cele- 
brated Flemish leader Philip Van Artevelde (ar'te-veld) 
was defeated and slain, and no less than 25,000 of the 
brave Flemings perished (1382). The French king him- 
self was present in this battle, but his army was com- 
manded by Oliver Clisson {hlees'song), Constable of France, 
a man of great talents and distinction. 

25. This great victory strengthened the power of the 
king ; and the French towns, which had made resistance to 
the royal exactions, being obliged to submit, all their citi- 
zens who had been prominent in the popular movement 
were put to death without mercy. In Paris alone, 300 
were led to the scaffold, martyrs to the cause of popular 
freedom (1382). Some years after this, Charles VI. be- 
came afflicted with insanity, from which he never entirely 
recovered; and while France, in consequence of this ca- 
lamity, was a prey to every species of disorder, Henry V. 
invaded it, took Har'fieur, and penetrated into the country. 
On his retreat, he was surprised at Agincourt ; but, though 
obliged to give battle at great disadvantage, he gained a 
decided victory (1415). This was followed by the taking 
of Eouen and the conquest of Normandy ; when, finally, 
the treaty of Troyes was made, according to which Henry 
married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and was, on 
the death of the latter, to become king of France. This 
shameful treaty was ratified by the States-General, but was. 
never carried into effect, for Henry died some months be- 
fore the death of Charles VI. (1422). 

26. Charles VII., the Victorious, was crowned at Poi- 



2.1. What was the effect of this victory ? How was the king afflicted ? What 
invasion took place ? With what result ? What followed the battle of Agincourt f 
What is said of the treaty of Troyes ? Why was it not carried into effect ? 



200 FRANCE IH THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1429. 

tiers; but Henry VI. of England had already been pro- 
claimed king of France, in accordance with the treaty of 
Troyes. The Duke of Bedford, the English regent, gained 
a great yictory over the army of Charles, consisting partly 
of Scotch and other auxiliaries (1424). This dreadful dis- 
aster to Charles was followed (1428) by the siege of 
Or'leans, the last stronghold of his party, while no hope 
was entertained by the French of being able to repel its 
assailants. The deliverance of Charles was, however, ef- 
fected by one of the most extraordinary occurrences re- 
corded in history. 

27. Joan of Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of 
a prophecy, to the effect that France could only be de- 
livered from its enemies by a virgin ; and the idea became 
impressed upon her mind, that to herself had been divinely 
committed the task of effecting this great object. She 
soon induced others to believe in the truth of her mission, 
among them the king himself and his chief officers, and 
was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor, and provided 
with a train of attendants (1429). Under her leadership, 
the French seemed to be inspired with almost superhuman 
courage, and soon compelled the English to raise the 
siege. 

28. She next urged the King to march to Eheims 
(reemz), in order to assume the crown of his ancestors ac- 
cording to the accustomed rites ; and, partly under her 
leadership, the French, after several victorious battles, 
reached the city, which the English were compelled to sur- 
render ; and the King was crowned in the great cathedral 
(1429). Joan then declared her mission ended, a*nd wished 
to be dismissed ; but her services being still demanded, she 
remained in the army; and a short time afterward fell into 



26. What caused a war on the accession of Charles VTI. ? What disasters oc 
curved ? How was Charles delivered from his difficult situation ? 

27. Who was Joan of Arc ? What was accomplished by her ? 

28. Narrate the subsequent events in the career of Joan of Arc. 



A.l>. 1465.] FKAKCE IH THE MIDDLE AGES. 201 

the power of the English, by whom she was burnt to death 
at Kouen, on a charge of sorcery (1431). 

29. Nothing was gained by the cruel execution of the 
"Maid of Orleans;" for the English continued to suffer 
defeat till they finally lost all their French possessions ex- 
cept Calais ; and the Duke of Burgundy, who had previously 
supported them, became reconciled to Charles VII. Charles 
thus rightly received the surname of " Victorious ; " for he 
had become one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. 
The last years of his life were embittered by the wicked 
and undutiful conduct of Louis, his eldest son, who re- 
peatedly plotted against him. With such terror was he in- 
spired from the wicked intrigues of the prince, that he was 
afraid to take food lest he might be poisoned ; and died, it 
is said, from want of sustenance (1461). 

30. Louis XI. The character of this king presents a 
strange and odious combination of dissimulation, cruelty, 
and superstition, and on this account he has been styled 
the Tiberius of France. Determined to enlarge the royal 
authority by weakening the great feudal vassals, he soon 
excited their opposition ; and a coalition was formed against 
him, called the League of the Pullic Good (1465), the ruling 
spirit of which was Charles the Bold, afterward Duke of 
Burgundy. A war ensued, in which Louis was defeated, 
and compelled to grant all the concessions demanded ; but 
these he afterward revoked, and, one by one, reduced the 
rebellious vassals to submission. 

31. The greater part of the reign of Louis XL is occu- 
pied with dark intrigues against his enemies, particularly 
against Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The latter was 
afterward defeated, in two great battles, by the Swiss, whose 
country he had invaded ; and the next year he suffered 

29. What is farther related of the reign of Charles VII. ? What emhittered his 
last years ? What caused his death ? 

30. What is said of the character of Louis XI. ? What caused the League of 
the Public Good ? What was the result of the war ? 

3 1 . What occupied most of this reign ? What is said of Charles of Burgundy % 

9* 



202 FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. LA. D. 1483. 



another defeat from the Duke of Lor-raine', at Nan'cy, where 
he was slain (1477). Louis, taking advantage of these cir- 
cumstances, was enabled to re-annex Burgundy to the 
French dominions. The death of Charles the Bold ended 
the long resistance of the great French vassals to the cen- 
tral power of the monarchy. 

32. Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heiress of 
Charles the Bold, was thus deprived of the Duchy ; but she 
still remained mistress of Flanders, and Louis desired to 
marry her to the Dauphin (the eldest son of the king). Dis- 
gusted with his treachery, she refused her consent, and 
accepted the hand of Maximilian, son of the Emperor of 
Germany, and Archduke of Austria (1477). This marriage 
laid the foundation of the greatness of the house of Aus- 
tria, and led to a rivalry between France and the Empire 
which lasted nearly two centuries. As Louis grew old, he 
became very superstitious and cruel ; and, at last, conscious 
of being universally abhorred, he shut himself up in a castle 
which he kept constantly defended by armed troops. His 
death, which occurred in 1483, is a turning point in French 
history, and marks the close of the Middle Ages. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

987. Hugh Capet, first of the Capetian dynasty. Reigned 9 years. 

996. Robert. Reigned 35 years. 
1000. Year of the predicted millennium. 
1031. Henry I. Reigned 29 years. 
1060. Philip I. Reigned 48 years. 
1095. First Crusade preached. 
1108. Louis VI., the Fat. Reigned 29 years. 

" Enfranchisement of the Communes. 
1137. Louis VII., tlie Young. Reigned 43 years. Second Crusade. 
1180. Philip II., Augustus. Reigned 43 years. Third Crusade. 

32. What is said of Mary of Burgundy? What was the effect of her marriage 
with Maximilian ? What is said of the close of the reign of Louis XI. ? When did 
his death occur ? Why is this an important date ? 



FKANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 203 

1209. Crusade against the Albigenses. 

1218. Death of Simon de Montfort. 

1223. Louis VIII. Reigned 3 years. Continued persecution of the 
Albigenses. 

1226. Louis IX. {St. Louis). Reigned 44 years. Two Crusades un- 
dertaken. 

1229. The Albigenses subdued. 

1 270. Philip III., the Hardy. Reigned 15 years. 

1282. The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. 

1285. Philip IV., the Fair. Reigned 29 years. Contest with Pope 
Boniface. 

1314. Louis X., Rutin. Reigned 2 years. 

1317. Philip V., the Tall. Regent 7 months ; reigned 5 years. Salic 
law confirmed. 

1322. Charles IV. Reigned 6 years. 

1328. Philip VI., of Valois. Reigned 22 years. 

1346. Battle of Crecy. 

1350. John, the Good. Reigned 14 years. 

1356. Battle of Poitiers. 

1364. Charles V., the Wise. Reigned 16 years. Constable du Guesclin. 

1380. Charles VI., the Well-beloved. Reigned 42 years. 

1415. Battle of Agincourt. 

1422. Charles VII., the Victorious. Reigned 39 years. 

1431. Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen. 

1461. Louis XI. Reigned 22 years. Called by some the Tiberius of 
France. 

1477. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, killed at Nancy. The 
duchy seized by Louis XI. 

1483. Death of Louis XI. 



EEVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. State all you can of Hugh Capet and his reign 147-187 

2. Over what territory did Capet have dominion ? 187 

3. By whom was he succeeded on the throne ? 187 

4. State the important events of King Bobert's reign 187-188 

5. What is said in relation to the predicted millennium ? 188-189 

6. By whom was King Bobert succeeded on the throne ? *. . . . 189 

7. Name the important events of the reign of Henry 1 189 

8. How was the power of the Church exercised during his reign ? 189 

9. By whom was Henry I. succeeded on the throne ? 189 

10. What were the character and acts of King Philip I. ? 161-189 

11. How many kings of the Capetian race were there ? 187—193, 195—196 



204 FEANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 

12. Name them in the order of their succession 187-188-189-190-191-192-193-195- 196 

13. What was the character of Louis VI., and what were his important acts ? 189-190 

14. How did Louis VH. gain and lose vast territory in France ? 19C 

15. State the important events in the life of Queen Eleanor ? 190-163-166 

16. What was the character of Philip Augustus ? 190-191 

17. Give an account of the important events of his reign . . . 190-191-167-168 

18. Give the history of the Alhigenses 191-192-207 

19. State what you can of Simon de Montfort 169-191 

20. State what you can of Count Raymond 191-192 

21. Give an account of the reign of Louis FX., or St. Louis 192-193 

22. What did Philip the Hardy accomplish in Africa and Aragon ? 193 

23. Give the facts in relation to the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers 193 

24. Name the principal events of the reign of Philip the Fair 193-194 

25. What can you state of Flanders and the Flemings ? 187-194-199 

26. Of Louis X., the son and successor of Philip the Fair ? 195 

27. Who was Philip the Long, and by what right did he become king ? 195 

28. Who was Charles TV., and how did he succeed to the throne ? 195-196 

29. vVho was Philip of Valois, and what were the events of his reign ? ... 196 

30. Give the particulars of the contest between him and Edward HI. . . 174-175-196 

31. What account can you give of the Black Plague of 1348-9 ? 175-196 

32. Beginning with the first, name six kings of the House of Valois 196 — 201 

33. Who was John the Good ? Name the events of his reign 196-197-198 

34 Give an account of the contest between him and Edward HI 175-197-198 

35. What was the character, and what the acts of Charles the Wise ? 198 

36. Give an account of the expedition against the Flemings 199 

37. State what the consequences were of Clisson's victory 199 

38. What efforts did Henry V. make to subdue France ? 179-199 

39. With what success were his efforts attended ? 179-180-199 

40. What were the early events in the reign of Charles the Victorious ? 199-200 

41. Give the facts in the career of Joan of Arc 180-200-201 

42. Give the closing events in the life of King Charles 201 

43. Who was Louis XI., and what was his character ? 201 

44. Give an account of the events in his reign 201-202 

45. Give the history of Mary of Burgundy 202 

46. What is said of the closing years of Louis XI. ? 202 

47. In what year did his death occur ? 202 

48. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the accession 

of Hugh Capet to the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers 202-203 

49. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the Massacre 

of the Sicilian Vespers to the death of Louis XI 203 

50. Name the early kings of France, with their surnames 202-203 

51. Name them with the length of their reigns 202-203 

52. Name each with the most important act of his reign 187 — 202 

53. Which of them had the longest reign ? 202-203 

54. Which of them engaged in the Crusades? 202-203 

55. During whose reign was the battle of Crecy fought ? 203 

56. During whose reign was the battle of Poitiers fough t ? 203 

57. During whose reign was the battle of Agincourt fought ? 203 

58. Who was Maximilian ? 202 



A.D. 1076.] THE CKUSADES. 205 



section v. 

The Ceusades. 

From the Council of Clermont (1095) to the Capture of Acre by the 
Mohammedans (1291). 

1. The Crusades were religious wars carried on during 
the Middle Ages between the Christian nations of the 
West and the Mohammedans of the East. From an early 
period, it had been deemed by the Church an act of piety 
to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, to visit the various 
places which the Saviour had hallowed by his presence, 
and to pay devotion to the sepulchre in which he had been 
entombed. The Saracens, who conquered Palestine in the 
7th century, had respected these Christian pilgrimages, 
and rather assisted than opposed those who made them, 
allowing them to build a church and a hospital at Jerusa- 
lem. The Eatimite sultans of Egypt, on their conquest of 
Syria, in the 10th century, had been less generous ; and 
Christendom, at that time, became somewhat alarmed and 
excited. 

2. But when the Seljuk Turks took possession of Syria 
and captured Jerusalem (1076), the pilgrims were treated 
with the most shocking cruelty and insult; and the news 
of these atrocities excited the deepest indignation through- 
out Christendom. The Byzantine emperors first taking 
alarm, appealed to the Christian monarchs of the "West ; 
and Pope Gregory VII. had entertained the idea of sending 
aid to the Emperor Manuel, in accordance with his earnest 
supplication, as early as 1073. It was not, however, until 

1 . What were the crusades ? What is said of the Christian pilgrimages ? How 
were the Christian pilgrims treated by the Saracens ? What alarmed Christendom 
in the tenth century ? 

2. How did the Seljuk Turks treat the Christians ? What was the consequence 5 
When were effectual measures for relief taken ? 



206 THE CKUSADES. [A.D.I 096. 

Peter the Hermit, returning from the Holy Land, depicted 
the dreadful sufferings of the Christians of Palestine, that 
any effectual measures for relief were taken. 

3. This religious enthusiast was a native of Am'i-ens, in 
France, and animated all who listened to his preaching 
with the same burning zeal against the infidels as had 
filled his own soul on witnessing their atrocities. Pope 
Urban II. soon took up the cause ; and two councils were 
held, at the second of which, at Cler-mont', in France 
(1095), the Pope himself delivered an impassioned address 
to a vast multitude of both clergy and laymen. His ex- 
hortation was greeted with the cry of " God wills it !" which 
burst simultaneously from every one present. The war 
was, accordingly, agreed upon ; and all who entered into it 
were directed to wear, as a badge, a cross of red stuff at- 
tached to the shoulder. Hence these wars were called 
Crusades. 

4. First Crusade. — From all parts of Europe thou- 
sands hurried, at the summons of the Pope, to take part in 
the holy war; and, in the spring of 1096, no less than 
275,000 men, in large part the dregs of the population, 
were on their way to Palestine. Peter himself commanded 
a great multitude ; but the first detachment, under Walter 
the Penniless, was cut to pieces by the Bulgarians, only a 
small band reaching Constantinople, where it was joined 
by the forces of Peter. This undisciplined multitude en- 
gaged the army of the Turkish Sultan on the plains of 
Mce, but were defeated with great slaughter. A third 
and fourth expedition of the same kind shared a similar 
fate. 

5. But the real crusaders soon arrived at Constantino- 
ple. These consisted of six armies of veteran soldiers, com- 
manded by the most skilful and experienced generals of 

3. Who was Peter the Hermit ? What was done hy Pope Urban II. ? What took 
place at the Council of Clermont ? Why were these wars called Crusades ? 

4. In what way was the first crusade commenced ? 

5. Who were the real Crusaders ? What force had they ? 



A.D. 1099.J THE CRUSADES. 207 

the age: Godfrey of Bouillon {boo-eel-yong'), Duke of Lor- 
raine ; Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I., king of 
France; Robert, son of "William the Conqueror of Eng- 
land; Count Robert, of Flanders; Bo'he-mond, Count of 
Tarentum, with his cousin, the noble and illustrious 
Tancred ; and Count Raymond, of Toulouse. The whole 
force amounted to about 600,000 men. 

6. Haying defeated Sultan Sol'i-man, and captured 
Nice, his capital (1097), they proceeded to Syria, and took 
Antioch (1098), after a siege of seven months. During 
this siege, Peter the Hermit, and multitudes of others, de- 
serted the ranks of the crusaders. After routing an im- 
mense army of Mohammedans, sent by the Persian sultan, 
the crusaders marched to Jerusalem, where they found their 
army reduced to 40,000 men. After a short siege, this city 
surrendered (1099), and Godfrey of Bouillon was unani- 
mously elected king. A short time after this, he defeated 
the Sultan of Egypt, with an immense army, at Ascalon. 

7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, thus founded, was gradu- 
ally extended till it embraced the whole of Palestine ; the 
best part of Asia Minor was restored to the Eastern Em- 
pire, and Bohemond was made Prince of Antioch. At 
Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the 
Knights Hospitallers of St. John and the Knights Templars. 
For nearly fifty years the three Latin principalities or 
kingdoms of the East — Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem — 
maintained themselves against the Mohammedans, and in- 
creased in power and wealth. 

8. Second Crusade. — This was excited by the dangers 
to which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the 
conquering arms of a Turkish Emir, who, having been ap- 
pointed governor of Aleppo, had defeated the Franks at 

6. What was accomplished by the crusaders ? Who was made King of Jeru- 
salem ? 

7. How was the kingdom of Jerusalem extended ? What else was done ? What 
orders were founded ? What is said of Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem ? 

8. What excited the second crusade ? By whom was it preached ? Who toot 
part in it ? What caused its failure ? 



208 THE CRUSADES. [A. ». 1192. 

Antioch, had taken Edessa, and threatened the destruction of 
all the Christian kingdoms in Syria. It was preached by 
the celebrated St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clairvanx (clare-vo'), 
in Champagne, who was distinguished for his learning and 
devotion. Two immense armies, under Louis VII., king of 
France, and Conrad III, emperor of Germany, marched 
.for the Holy Land (1147). But, owing to the base treach- 
ery of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies 
met with a long series of disasters ; and after a fruitless at- 
tempt to take Damascus, the expedition was abandoned, 
only a small remnant of the numerous host returning to 
Europe. 

9. Third Crusade. — The taking of Jerusalem by Sal'a- 
din, sultan of Egypt (1187), led to a third crusade, the 
chiefs of which were Frederick Bar-ba-ros'sa, emperor of 
Germany; Philip Augustus, king of France; and Richard 
I, of England. The emperor set out first (1189), but 
died of a fever brought on by imprudently bathing in the 
O-ron'tes River. His army joined the forces of the other two 
monarchs at Acre ; which city, after a long siege of nearly 
two years, was compelled to surrender, notwithstanding 
every effort made by Saladin to relieve the defenders. 
No less than nine battles were fought, and more than 
100,000 Christians perished, in battle or by disease, during 
the progress of this siege. 

10. Richard and Philip having quarrelled, the latter re- 
turned to Europe ; but the former led his forces to Asca- 
lon, and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire from 
Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies of valor, which 
excited the admiration of the Saracens, he made a treaty 
with Saladin, to protect the pilgrims from injury and op- 
pression, and set out for Europe (1192). Saladin dying the 

next year, the unity of his empire was destroyed. The 

— 9 — , — 

9. What led to the third crusade ? Who were its chiefs ? What befell the Em- 
peror Frederick ? What city was taken ? What losses did the Christians sustain ? 

1 0. Why did Philip return home ? What did Richard achieve ? What ended 
the third crusade ? 



A. D. 1269.] THE CRUSADES. 209 

sultans of Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to 
each other; and the Franks, or Christians of Syria, were 
left secure in their possessions. 

11. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Inno- 
cent III. (1203). A yast armament was fitted out at 
Venice; but the expedition was diverted from its proper 
mission against the Mohammedans, and, under Baldivin, 
Count of Flanders, proceeded against Constantinople. This 
city the crusaders took (1204), and founded there the Latin 
dynasty of emperors, who occupied the throne for fifty-six 
years. 

12. The Fifth Crusade was led by Frederick II., em- 
peror of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated 
by a treaty which the emperor made with the sultan of 
Egypt. In accordance with this treaty, Palestine was 
ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of both the 
Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this arrange- 
ment, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and pros- 
perity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols, in 
the middle of the thirteenth century. 

13. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken by Louis IX. 
(St. Louis), of France (1249), in consequence of the cap- 
ture and pillage of Jerusalem by the barbarous Mongols. 
The French monarch, after having taken Damietta, was 
utterly defeated by the Sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. 
He was afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 

14. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. 
Louis in alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward 
I.) of England (1269), in consequence of the taking of 
Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* Sultan of Egypt. Louis 

* The Mamelukes (a word meaning in Arabic, slaves) were of Turkish origin, and were bought 
by the Sultan of Egypt and placed in the army. In 1254, they had advanced to such a decree of 
power, that they made one of their number Sultan, and founded a dynasty which occupied the 
throne of Egypt for centuries. 



1 1 . Wh.& enjoined the fourth crusade ? What did it accomplish ? 

1 2. Who was at the head of the fifth crusade ? What was effected hy it ? 

1 3. By whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? Why ? What was the result ? 

1 4. By whom was the seventh crusade undertaken ? Why ? What caused the 
death of St. Louis ? What followed ? What was done by Edward ? 



210 THE CRUSADES. [A. D. 1291. 

crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the King of Tunis as 
a convert to Christianity ; but, instead of a convert, he 
found a determined enemy ; and a pestilence having broken 
out, the French perished by thousands on the burning 
sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son Philip, 
after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, returned to 
France (1270). Prince Edward, however, proceeded to the 
Holy Land, and gained some advantages by his skill and 
valor; but after making a ten years' truce, he returned 
home to assume the English throne. 

15. This was the last of the crusades. Antioch had been 
taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants 
slaughtered or made slaves in 1268 ; the other towns of 
Syria, soon after fell successively into the hands of the Mo- 
hammedans, excepting Acre, which for a time was the me- 
tropolis of the Christians. This also was captured by the 
sultan in 1291, and its inhabitants, to the number of 
60,000, put to death or sent into bondage. Soon afterward 
all the churches and fortifications of the Latin Christians 
throughout Syria were demolished. 

16. Influence of the Crusades. These enterprises 
indirectly contributed very greatly to the political and 
social improvement of the nations of Europe during the 
Middle Ages. They tended to break up the feudal system, 
by compelling the great barons to sell their lands, in order 
to raise the money necessary to equip their troops and 
transport them to distant countries. They also aided pop- 
ular freedom, by inducing kings to grant to the towns po- 
litical privileges, in return for contributions of money for 
the same purpose. 

17. TJiey encouraged commerce, by employing so many 
ships and such vast supplies as were required to transport 
and sustain the vast armies which were raised and sent out 

1 5. What events destroyed the power of the Latin Christians in Syria ? 

1 6. What was the influence of the crusades on the Feudal System ? On popular 
freedom ? 

1 7. On commerce and navigation ? What cities rose to eminence ? 



THE CRUSADES. 211 



to so great a distance. Foreign countries were brought into 
communication with each other, and the advantage of a 
mutual exchange of products soon became apparent. 
Thus the arts of navigation and ship-building rapidly ad- 
vanced ; and many cities situated in the route of these ex- 
peditions soon acquired extraordinary influence and wealth. 
Of these Gen'oa and Venice are examples. 

18. They promoted the diffusion of knoivledge, and the 
progress of science and literature. Those who engaged in 
them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate ; but 
coming in contact with the Greek and Saracenic civiliza- 
tion, they soon imbibed a taste for the science and litera- 
ture which constituted one of its most prominent features, 
and, on returning home, communicated the same spirit to 
their fellow countrymen. 

19. They were enterprises undertaken for a noble and 
unselfish purpose ; and, although blended with it, was the 
desire of military distinction and renown, this was to be 
gratified by great self-sacrifice, and personal devotion to a 
cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence 
were necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, 
that eagerness to succor the weak and distressed, that love 
of romantic adventure, and those elevated sentiments of 
honor, all of which went to form that remarkable feature 
of the manners of the Middle Ages, known as chivalry. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

1076. Jerusalem taken by the Seljuk Turks. 
1095. Council of Clermont. 
" First crusade advocated by Pope Urban II. 

1097. Soliman defeated and Nice taken by the Crusaders. 

1098. Antioch taken by the Crusaders. 

1099. Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king. 

18. How did they promote the diffusion of knowledge, and the progress of 
science and literature ? 

1 9. What is further said of their influence ? How did they give rise to chivalry I 



212 THE CRUSADES. 



1147. Second crusade undertaken by Louis VII. and the Emperor 

Conrad. 
1187. Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 
1189. Third crusade under Philip II., Richard I., and Frederick Bar- 

barossa. 

1203. Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, count of Flanders. 

1204. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. 

1228. Fifth crusade, under Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 
1249. Sixth crusade, under St. Louis. 

1269. Seventh crusade, under St. Louis and Prince Edward. 

1270. Death of St. Louis near Tunis. 

1291. Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans. Total conquest of 
Syria and subjugation of the Latin Christians 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. What was the early custom in reference to making pilgrimages to the 

Holy Land ? . 205 

2. What events afterward occurred to interfere with the custom ? 205 

3. Who was Peter the Hermit, and what did he do ? 189-206-207 

4. What preparations were made for the first crusade ? 206 

5. Give the full account of the first crusade 206-161-20? 

6. State why the second crusade was undertaken 207-208 

7. Give the full account of the second crusade 207-208-190 

8. What was the immediate cause of the third crusade ? 208 

9. Give the full account of the third crusade 208-209-166-191 

10. Why, and with what result, was the fourth crusade made ? 209 

11. Give an account of the fifth crusade 209 

12. When and hy whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? 209 

13. Give the facts in the career of Saint Louis 192-193-209-210 

14. Give the full account of the seventh crusade 209-210 

15. Give the history of Antioch 58-115-118-137-207-210 

16. What were the four important influences of the crusades 210-211 

17. In what way did they tend to destroy the feudal system 210 

18. Explain how they encouraged commerce 210-211 

19. In what way did they promote the diffusion of knowledge ? 211 

20. How did they promote the spirit of heroism and disinterestedness ?. . 211 

21. Name the most prominent persons in each of the seven crusades 206 — 210 

22. Name those who were most successful 206 — 210 

23. Name, in chronological order, important events of the 11th century. 184-202-211 

24. Name those of the 12th century 184-202-212 

25. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212 

26. Name those of the 14th century ~ 185-203 

27. Name those of the 15th century 185-203 



936.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 213 



section vi. 

Central and Southern Europe during the Middle 

Ages. 

• Germany — {From 843 to 1493). 

1. After the battle of Eontenaille, in which the degen- 
erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over 
the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, the em- 
pire was divided into three portions, — France, Germany, 
and Italy; and the second of these divisions was assigned 
to Louis (843). The Carlovingian race became extinct in 
911 ; and thereafter the Di'et, or Great Council consisting 
of the provincial rulers and the chief dignitaries of the 
Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject 
to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could be 
crowned. 

2. Several races at this time occupied Germany, the chief 
of which were the Franks, Saxons, Ba-va'ri-ans, and Sua'- 
bi-ans ; and the first choice of the Diet was Conrad of 
Franconia. He was succeeded (919) by five Saxon emper- 
ors, the first of whom was Henry I. (the Fowler), who brave- 
ly and successfully withstood an irruption of the Magyars 
(mod'yars), or Hungarians, whom he defeated in a great 
battle (934), and thus saved his country from being overrun 
by those barbarous hordes. Before his death (936) he was 
regarded as the greatest monarch in Europe. 

3. He was succeeded by his son Otho I. (the Great), 
who again saved Germany by defeating the Hungarians 

1 . When and how was the empire of Charlemagne divided ? To whom wa3 
Germany assigned ? When did the Carlovingian race hecome extinct ? What fol- 
lowed ? 

2. What races occupied Germany ? Who was the first choice of the electors f 
By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Henry the Fowler ? 

3. Wh<» succeeded Henry I. ? What was accomplished hy Otho the Great ? 



214 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1056. 

(955), in a battle near Augsburg (ougs'boorg), and extended 
the limits of the Empire on every side. At the head of a 
victorious army he passed the Alps, subdued Italy, and 
after receiving at Mil'an the iron crown of the Lombards, 
was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the "West (962). 

4. This great monarch died in 973, and was succeeded 
by his son Otho II., whose reign was a constant series of 
wars. He defeated the Saracens in Lower Italy, and made 
himself master of Naples and Tarentum; but the Greek 
emperor having invited the Saracens again into Italy, 
Otho was entirely overwhelmed by them, and narrowly 
escaped with life. At a diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally 
confirmed the privileges of the Republic of Venice ; and was 
preparing a great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- 
cens, when he died at Kome (983). 

5. Otho III. was also a great monarch. He defeated the 
Slaves,* or Slavonians, who had long carried on war against 
the Empire, and compelled their chief, Mi-cis'las, Duke of 
Poland, to do him homage. Afterward, by formally ac- 
knowledging the successor of the duke a king, he raised 
the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom (995). He 
died at Kavenna (1002), and was succeeded by Henry II. 
who was the last of the Saxon emperors (1024). 

6. Four Franconian Emperors followed. The first was 
Conrad II., who annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to 
the Empire. Henry III., his son, promulgated the Truce 
of God, extended his sway over Hungary, and repressed the 
insolence of the spiritual and temporal princes of Germany. 
He was succeeded by Henry IV. (1056), who had a severe 
contest with the famous Pope Gregory VII (Hil'de-brand). 

* The Slaves, or Slavonians, anciently called Sarmatiana and Scythians, originally inhabited 
the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and previous to the seventh century had spread them- 
selves over a large district in Central Europe, bordering on the Baltic Sea. 



4. State the principal events in the reign of Otho II. When did his death occur ? 

5 . What was accomplished by Otho III. ? How did Poland become a kingdom ? 
Who was the last of the Saxon emperors ? 

6. What emperors followed ? What was done by Conrad II. ? By Henry HI. f 
Who succeeded him? What caused the contest between Henry IV. and Gregory 
VII. ? How was Henry IV. humiliated ? 



1152.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN" EUROPE. 215 

This talented and energetic pontiff aimed to free the Church 
from its abuses and make it supreme over the civil power, 
and therefore determined to put a stop to the corrupt sale 
of ecclesiastical offices by the emperor. Henry, resisting 
this, was excommunicated ; and, in 1077, the greatest tem- 
poral monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on 
the frosty earth at . Canossa (a town in Italy) for three 
days, waiting for admission to Gregory, to whom he finally 
made the most abject submission. 

7. But he failed to keep his promises, and raised a large 
army, with which he defeated Rudolf of SuaMa, whom the 
Pope had caused to be elected in his stead. Then passing 
into Italy, he took Eome (1084), and ordered the election of 
a pope in place of Gregory, whom he deposed and drove into 
exile at Salerno.* Here, this zealous and able pontiff died 
(1085) ; but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the 
papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts. 
Henry IV. was succeeded by Henry V. (1106), who was 
the last of the Franconian emperors ; and after the crown 
had been worn by Lotliaire of Saxony (1125-1137), it passed 
into the possession of Conrad of SuaMa (Conrad III.). 

8. Conrad III., the first of the Suabian Emperors, took 
part in the second Crusade. His reign is noted for the 
commencement of the civil wars between the papal and 
imperial parties, called, respectively, the GuelpJis and GMV- 
ellines, the contests between whom continued to harass 
Germany and Italy for nearly three centuries. Frederick I. 
(Bar-ba-ros'sa — Bed-Beard), the nephew of Conrad, suc- 
ceeded him (1152) ; and displayed, during a long reign, the 
character of an active and talented monarch. He engaged 
in a oontest with the Lombard cities of Northern Italy, 

* A town in Southern Italy, about thirty miles southeast of Naples, on a gulf of the same 
name. It is very famous in history. 



7. What did he afterward do ? Where did Gregory die ? What was the effect 
of his efforts ? Who succeeded Henry IV. ? When did Conrad of Suahia assume 
the crown ? 

8. What is said of the reign of Conrad in. ? Of Frederick Barbarossa ? How 
did the Lombard cities acquire their independence ? 



216 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1250. 

which at this time emerging into power, claimed the rights 
of republics. Although at first defeated, they subsequently 
triumphed (1176) in the battle of Legnano (len-yah'no) ;* 
and, by the peace of Constance,^ acquired their independ- 
ence (1183). Frederick perished in the third Crusade 
(1190). He is regarded as the best and wisest of his race. 

9. The interval between the death of Frederick Barba- 
rossa and the accession of the Hapsburg line (1190-1273), 
was a period of constant internal commotion and foreign 
war. The most eminent of the emperors of this period was 
Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa, and one of the 
ablest and most accomplished sovereigns of the Middle 
Ages. He was compelled, by his obligations to the pope, 
to undertake two expeditions to the Holy Land, in the 
second of which he was successful. Contests with the 
Italian cities and with the papacy occupied the remainder 
of his reign. He died in 1250. 

10. The Hanseatic League. — During the reign of 
Frederick II., Hamburgh and Lubec formed a union, to 
protect their shipping against pirates, and extend their 
commerce. This confederacy was soon joined by Br em' en, 
Cologne, Dant'zic, and many other towns, and became very 
influential and celebrated, under the title of the Hansa, or 
Han-se-at'ic League. Its principal foreign depots were 
London, Bru'ges,\ Nov'gorod,§ and Ber'gen.\ Its deputies 
met every three years at Lubec. This league attained its 
highest prosperity and importance in the 14th century. 
Its last general assembly met in 1630. 

* A town of Northern Italy, sixteen miles N. W. of Milan. 

+ A town in the southern part of Germany, on the northwestern shore of Lake Constance. 

% In the Middle Ages the great emporium of Central Europe, distinguished not only for its 
extensive commerce, but its manufacture of cloths and tapestries. 4 

§ A great emporium of Western Russia during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries; having at 
one time, it is said, a population of 400,000. 

|| A commercial town in the western part of Norway. 



9. What is said of the period following the reign of Frederick I. ? What was 
the character of Frederick II. ? What were the chief events of his reign ? 

10. What led to the Hanseatic League ? What towns joined it? What were 
its principal foreign depots ? Where and row often did its deputies meet? When 
did it reach its highest influence ? When did it end ? 



1308.] CENTRAL AKD SOUTHERN EUROPE. 217 

11. Rudolf I., the first of the Haps'burg* line, was 
acknowledged emperor by the Pope (Gregory X.) (1273), 
on condition of resigning all jurisdiction over Eome, while 
he retained the right of investing new bishops. He sub- 
dued Ot'to-car of Bohemia, and seized his dominions, in- 
cluding Austria, thus founding the present Austrian Em- 
pire. He ruled with much skill and energy ; and, reducing 
the robber-nobles to submission, greatly increased the im- 
perial power. On his death (1291) a contest arose as to 
the succession; but his son Albert finally prevailed (1298). 

12. Albert I. — During this reign the Swiss Cantons 
made their memorable rising for independence, being pro- 
voked, according to the popular tradition, by the tyranny 
of the governor, Gesler (ghes'ler), who commanded, as the 
story goes, the citizens of Al'torf to bow before the ducal 
cap of Austria, set upon a pole in the market-place. This, 
William Tell refused to do ; and was condemned to lose his 
life, or shoot an apple from his son's head. Although he 
succeeded in this trying ordeal, the governor still refused 
to set him at liberty ; but a storm arising as he was carried 
in chains across the lake, he was unfettered, in order that 
he might render aid as a steersman ; when, leaping from 
the vessel as it neared the shore, he escaped, and a short 
time after avenged himself and his country by slaying the 
tyrannical governor (1308). f The emperor himself was 
murdered the same year in Switzerland by his nephew, 
John of Suabia. 

13. After the murder of Albert, the imperial throne was 
filled in succession by Henry VII (1308-1313), who an- 

* Hapsburg, meaning HawJc''s Castle, was the name given to the stronghold built by the feudal 
ancestors of this race, on the Rhine. 

+ The story of William Tell is a traditionary legend, the details of which are now generally 
believed to be fictitious. 



1 1 . What were the principal events of the reign of Rudolf I. ? Who succeeded 
him ? 

1 2. What interesting event occurred during the reign of Albert I. ? Relate the 
story of William Tell. When and how did Albert's death occur ? 

13. Who were the next four emperors ? Which annexed Bohemia to the em- 
pire ? What was the Golden Bull ? By whom was it issued ? What followed the 
death of Charles IV. ? When did Sigismund of Hungary ascend the throne ? 

10 



218 CENTKAL AHD SOLTHEKN EUROPE. [1437. 

nexed Bohemia to the empire; Louis of Bavaria, and 
Frederick of Austria (1313-1349) ; and Charles IV. of Bo- 
hemia (1349-1378) ; the last of whom published the Golden 
Bull, a decree by which the electors of the German Empire 
and the mode of election were determined (1356). The 
death of Charles IV. was followed by several brief reigns, 
after which the crown was conferred on Sig'is-mund of 
Hungary, a son of Charles IV. (1410). 

14. This emperor had been king of Hungary, and at- 
tempted, with an immense army of Hungarians, French, 
Germans, and Poles, to relieve the Byzantine Empire, then 
attacked by the Ottomans; but was terribly defeated at 
Nicop 'oils* (1396). During his reign John Huss preached 
in Prague against the abuses of the Church, and attacked 
the papal supremacy. At first he was excommunicated; 
and then, being induced under a safe-conduct given by the 
Emperor Sigismund, to attend the council at Constance, 
he was apprehended, convicted of heresy, and, notwith- 
standing the plighted word of Sigismund, burnt at the 
stake (1415). His friend and disciple, Jer'ome of Prague, 
shared the same fate the next year. 

15. This led to a furious war of sixteen years, in the first 
part of which the Bohemians, or Hussites, were led by the 
famous John Zis'ca, and defeated the armies of Sigismund 
in many battles. In 1437, a treaty was made, by which the 
religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia was acknowl- 
edged. "While this war was going on, Sigismund marched 
against the Turks, whom he defeated in a great battle near 
Nis'sa\ (1419). This checked the Ottoman conquests on 
the eastern frontier. Sigismund died in 1437. 

16. The short reign of Albert II. (1437-1440), was fol- 

* A town in European Turkey, on the Danube. (See Progressive Map, No. 7 ) 

t A town in European Turkey, south of the Danube. (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 



1 4. What led to the battle of Mcopolis ? What account is given of John Huss ? 
Of Jerome of Prague ? 

1 5. What is said of the war with the Hussites ? Who was their leader ? How 
was it ended ? Where did Sigismund defeat the Turks ? What was the effect of 
this defeat ? 



1436.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 219 

lowed by that of Frederick III., who, in order to aggran- 
dize the house of Austria, neglected the general interests of 
the empire, and suffered the infidel Turks to make great 
encroachments upon its territories. He succeeded (1477) 
in effecting a marriage between his son Maximilian and 
Mary of Burgundy, thus obtaining for the former the 
sovereignty of the Netherlands, which Mary had inherited 
from her father, Charles the Bold. Printing was invented 
in Germany during the reign of Frederick III. Maxi- 
milian succeeded his father on the imperial throne in 1493. 

Switzerland — {From 1307 to 1476). 

17. The oppression of the Swiss by Albert I. led to an 
insurrection ; and Leopold, his son, advancing into Switzer- 
land with a considerable army, was defeated by a small band 
of Swiss at the narrow pass of Mor' gar-ten (1315). This 
was followed by a league of the Cantons of Uri (oo'ree), 
Schweitz (shivites), and Unterivalden (oon'ter-wal'den), to 
which others were afterward added ; and, in 1352, the con- 
federacy included eight Cantons. The Austrians afterward 
renewed the war, and were again defeated at Seni'pach 
(1386), in a battle memorable for the devotion of Arnold 
of Winhelried (win'hel-reed), who, when his countrymen 
recoiled from the serried spears of the enemy, rushed upon 
them, burying them in his bosom, but making way for the 
Swiss host behind him. 

18. In the following century, Switzerland had gained in 
strength ; but it was severely tried by a civil war which 
broke out among the Cantons in 1436. This was followed 
by a struggle with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, in 
which the Swiss gained two decisive victories. Their inde- 



1 6. What reigns followed ? Relate what is said of Frederick III. What was 
obtained by the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy ? What invention 
took place ? When did Maximilian succeed to the throne ? 

1 7. What led to the battle of Morgarten ? By what was it followed ? What took 
place at Sempach ? What is related of Arnold of Winkelried ? 

18. Relate the subsequent history of Switzerland to 1499. 



220 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1499. 

pendence was fully established by a peace concluded with 
the Emperor Maximilian in 1499. 

Italy. 

19. Northern Italy, by the defeat of the Lombards 
(774), passed under the rule of Charlemagne, who was, in 
800, crowned at St. Peter's "Emperor of the Bonians." 
After the battle of Fontenaille, it was assigned to his 
grandson Lothaire (843), whose descendants held the throne 
nearly fifty years (843-888). This period is noted for the 
invasion of Southern Italy by the Saracens, who carried 
their victorious arms even to the gates of Eome. They 
held possession of a large part of the country until they 
w^re expelled by the Normans in 1016. 

20. Confusion and civil war followed the close of the 
Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, occasioned by the 
disputes of ambitious nobles for the throne, until Otho L, 
of Germany, assumed the sovereignty of the country (961). 
From this period, the chief towns rapidly emerged into 
power and importance. The Lombard League was formed 
in 1167 ; and, in 1183, the cities secured their independence 
by the Peace of Constance. The bitter strife between the 
Guelphs and Ghibellines devastated the country for centu- 
ries ; but, nevertheless, the republics of Northern Italy at- 
tained a high degree of spendor and prosperity. 

21. Venice. — Among these, Venice occupied a promi- 
nent place. Its foundation dates from the invasion of Italy 
by Attila (452), who pillaged and destroyed the flourishing 
cities of the Veneti in Northern Italy; and many of the 
inhabitants, -taking refuge among the islands at the head 
of the Adriatic, founded there a settlement which for a 



19. What events are mentioned in the history of Northern Italy from 843 to 
888 ? Of Southern Italy ? 

20. How was Northern Italy affected by the extinction of the Carlovingians ? 
What league was formed ? How did the cities secure their independence ? What 
contest laid waste the country ? What is said of the northern republics ? 

21. What account is given of the foundation of Venice ? 



1177.] CENTEAL AND SOUTHEEN EUEOPE. 221 

time depended for its subsistence upon fishing and the 
manufacture of salt. It was called Ve-ne'zi-a, or, as we 
have it, Venice. 

22. It was between two and three centuries a simple re- 
public ; but, in 697, the first Doge {duke) was elected, — an 
officer in whom was yested almost undivided authority. 
The republic was nominally subject to the Eastern Em- 
pire, and assisted it in defending the Exarchate of Ravenna 
from the attacks of the Lombards. During the reign of 
Charlemagne (809), it was attacked by the Franks, but 
defeated them with great loss. A short time after this,. the 
central island, Rialto (re-aivl'to), was connected with the 
other islands by wooden bridges ; and this city of bridges 
and canals, instead of streets, came to be generally known 
by its name Venice. 

23. A short time after this, the Venetians took St. Marie 
as their patron saint, haying brought, as it is said, his body 
from Alexandria (829). During the next 250 years, the 
republic greatly increased in wealth, commerce, and nayal 
power; and its territorial dominions were augmented by 
the acquisition of Dalmatia, and some of the neighboring 
provinces. In the first Crusade, the Venetians sent a fleet 
of more than 200 vessels to aid Godfrey of Bouillon (1099) ; 
and during the whole period of these expeditions, Venice 
was the great centre of commerce, and the emporium by 
which the silks, spices, and gems of the East were distributed 
to Europe. 

24. Venice was a prominent member of the " League of 
Lombardy," against Frederick Barbarossa ; and, during the 
contest (in 1177), gained a splendid naval victory over the 
Ghibellines, under Oth o, Frederick's son, in defence of the 
Pope, who had appealed to the republic for protection. It 

22. When was the first Doge elected ? How was Venice connected with the 
Eastern Empire ? Whom did it defeat in 809 ? What is said of the Rialto ? 

23. What events occurred during the next 250 years ? How was Venice affected 
hy the Crusades ? 

24. Of what league was Venice a member? What great victory was gained 1 
What ceremony was instituted ? 



222 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1396 

was after this victory that the ceremony of " wedding the 
Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge 
with a ring for the purpose.* 

25. After the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders 
(1204), Venice having supplied a fleet, under the venera- 
ble doge Dan'do-lo, received, as her share of the spoils, the 
Mo-re' a,\ and several other territories in Europe. The 
doge, although blind and ninety years of age, so distin- 
guished himself that the Crusaders, in admiration of his 
prowess and skill, offered him the imperial crown, which 
he refused. During the latter half of the 13th century and 
most of the 14th, Venice was engaged in almost constant 
war with her great rival, Gen'o-a. 

26. In the latter part of the 13th century (1275), Mar'co 
Po'lo, the great Venetian traveller, crossed Asia, and after 
visiting Tartary and China, returned home by way of the 
East Indies and the Persian Gulf. The account given by 
this traveller of the East, did much to stimulate further 
adventure and exploration. After Genoa had passed away 
as an independent power (1396), Venice experienced her 
highest prosperity, and was the greatest maritime power 
in the world. 

27. She acquired by conquest, in the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, a large domain in Northern Italy, and 
did important service to Europe by repelling the attacks of 
the Turkish fleets in the Mediterranean. Her wars, how- 
ever, soon wasted her treasures, and impaired her com- 
merce ; while her government became tyrannical and cor- 
rupt. When the new route to the East, by way of the Cape 

* This ceremony, performed with great pomp and festivity, consisted in casting a ring in the 
sea, to indicate that it was " subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband." 
f The southern peninsula of Greece, anciently called the Peloponnesus. 



25. How was Venice rewarded after the taking of Constantinople in 1204? 
What is said of Dandolo ? With what other republic was Venice at war in the 
13th and 14th centuries ? 

26. What is said of Marco Polo? What did Venice become after the fall of 
Genoa ? 

27 What is said of the history of Venice during the 15th century? In what 
way did she lose her power ? 



1060.] CENTRAL AKD SOUTHERN EUROPE. 223 

of Good Hope, was discovered (1497), her fate was sealed, 
and her glory soon departed. 

28. Southern Italy. This part of the Peninsula, in 
the ninth century, was invaded by the Saracens, against 
whom it was for a time defended by the armies of the By- 
zantine Empire. In the next century, Otho II., of Ger- 
many, having defeated the Saracens, made himself master 
of Naples and Salerno, and finally of Tarentum. This so 
alarmed the Greek emperor, that he formed an alliance 
with the Saracens ; and, in the severe battle of Crotona, 
utterly defeated Otho, who with difficulty escaped from the 
hands of the victors. The Saracens held many of the 
most important places in Southern Italy until they were 
expelled by the Normans, in the 11th and 12th centuries. 

29. These were a band of adventurers from Normandy, 
who at first rendered aid in expelling the Saracens from 
Salerno (1016). Being joined by others, they soon made a 
lodgment in the delightful regions of Southern Italy, re- 
peatedly defeating the vastly more numerous forces of the 
Eastern Empire. Their numbers were increased by con- 
stant accessions from Normandy; and, in 1060, the re- 
nowned Robert Guts' card (or gliees-kar'), was acknowledged 
by the pope Duke of Apulia and Cala'bria, and of such 
other lands, in Italy and Sicily, as he might rescue from 
the Greeks and Saracens. This Norman duke was, per- 
haps, the most accomplished soldier of his age ; and ex- 
tended his conquests throughout Southern Italy, thus put- 
ting an end to the long dominion of the Eastern emperors. 

30. He subsequently raised an immense army, officered 
by Norman knights, and attacked the other territories of 
the Eastern Empire. Durazzo (doo-rat 1 so)* fell, after a 

* A town of European Turkey, on the Adriatic; called by the Greeks Epidamnus; by the Ro- 
mans, Dyrrachium. 

28. Who invaded Southern Italy in the ninth century? By whom was it de- 
fended ? What was done by Otho II. ? What led to the battle of Crotona ? How 
long did the Saracens continue in Southern Italy ? By whom were they expelled ? 

29. Who were the Normans ? How did they obtain a lodgment in Southern 
Italy ? What is said of Robert Guiscard ? 



224 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1435. 

siege of seven months, before his invincible skill and valor ; 
and thence he marched his army into the heart of the em- 
pire, making Constantinople itself tremble. He was, how- 
ever, hastily recalled to Italy to protect Pope Gregory VII. 
(Hildebrand) against his inveterate foe, Henry IV. of 
Germany ; and, raising a large army, he marched rapidly 
from Salerno to Rome, and compelled the German emperor 
to seek safety in retreat. It was with the faithful Robert 
Guiscard, that the illustrious pontiff at last found an 
asylum at Salerno. 

31. Roger I, the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered 
Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war ; and his 
son, Roger II, ruled over the Norman possessions in both 
Sicily and Italy, and subjugated the free cities of Naples 
and Amal'Ji* (1127) ; but, in the person of William II, his 
grandson, the Norman dynasty became extinct, and the 
kingdom passed under the sway of the German emperors 
(1189). 

32. Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom 
Charles of Anjou defeated in the battle of Beneverito\ 
(1266), and thus obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, 
which he retained till the dreadful massacre of the Sicilian 
Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; but trans- 
mitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the throne 
of that country till 1435, when it passed tp the kings of 
Aragon, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian 
Vespers. 

33. Rome, or Papal Italy, has been governed since the 
8th century by the Popes, who, in uninterrupted succession, 
have been elected to fill the chair of St. Peter. During a 

* A town on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive trade in the 
Middle Ages. 
+ A town of Southern Italy, a few miles northeast of Naples. 



30. Narrate the other principal events in the history of Robert Guiscard. 

3 1 . What is related of Roger I. and Roger II. ? What ended the Norman 
dynasty? 

32. How and when did Charles of Anjou obtain Naples and Sicily? How long 
did he retain Sicily ? Naples ? 

33. What is related of Rome, or Papal Italy ? What account is given of Rienzi f 



1252.] CEHTEAL AND SOUTHERN EUEOPE. 225 

period of 72 years (from 1305 to 1377) the Pope's resi^ 
dence was at Avignon. Kome, in the mean while, was the 
scene of constant disorder from the lawless acts of the 
great nobles, who prosecuted their family feuds with the 
utmost fury and license. Out of these struggles arose 
Eienzi (re-en' ze), the " Last of the Tribunes/' who, in 1347, 
seized the chief power, and having expelled the nobles, en- 
deavored to restore the ancient liberties of the city. A 
counter-revolution overturned his government after an ex- 
istence of but seven months, and he was driven into exile. 
Eienzi was a friend of the famous poet Pe'trarch, and was 
distinguished for his learning and oratory. 

Spain. 

34. On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens, the Chris- 
tians, who were the remnant of the Visigothic kingdom, 
took refuge in the mountainous districts of As-tu'ri-as, 
and founded a new kingdom under their leader, Pe-la'yo. 
For centuries they and their descendants waged an almost 
incessant warfare upon the Moslems^ or Mohammedans; 
and new kingdoms came into existence as the country 
was gradually recovered. Of these, Ar'agon and Castile 
(cas-teel') were the chief. In 1212, these different king- 
doms combined their forces, and gained at To-lo'sa* one 
of the greatest victories ever achieved by the Christians 
over their Moslem foes. 

35. After this battle, the Saracen power rapidly declined, 
and that of Castile and Aragon steadily increased. The 
most celebrated of the Castilian monarchs were Al-fon'so 
X., noted for his learning, and particularly for his love of 
astronomy (1252-1282) ; Peter the Cruel, a contemporary 
of Du Gl-uesclin and the Black Prince; and Henry, his snc- 

* A town in the northern part of Spain, a few miles from the port of St. Sebastian, on the Bay 
of Biscay. (See Map, page 226.) 



34. What followed the conquest of Spain by the Saracens? What Christian 
kingdoms were afterward formed ? What is said of the battle of To-lo'sa ? 

35. What was the effect of this battle ? Who was the most eminent of the kings 
of Castile ? For what was he noted ? What other kings are mentioned ? 

10* 



226 



CENTEAL AKD SOUTHEEN ETJEOPE. 



[1469. 



cessor, who was defeated at Navarrete (nali-var-ra'ta)* by 
the Black Prince, and deposed. 

36. The smaller kingdom of Aragoh acquired extensive 
foreign possessions, the chief of which were Sicily, Naples, 
and Sardinia. Under the reign of Ferdinand the Cath- 




8 Xon£. "West from 4 london. 



olic, who married Isabella, Queen of Castile, both these 
kingdoms were united (1479) ; and from this date com- 
menced the real greatness of Spain. Ferdinand made war 
upon Granada {grali-nati -dali), the last Moslem kingdom 

* A town in the northern part of Spain, near the Ehro River. (See Map.) 



Map Questions.— What provinces of Spain border on the Atlantic ? On the 
Pyrenees ? On the Mediterranean ? In what part of Spain is Castile ? Leon ? 
Aragon ? Murcia ? Where is Saragossa ? Toledo ? Valencia ? Cordova ? Tal- 
avera ? Granada ? What cities of Portugal are on or near the Atlantic ? 

36. What possessions were acquired by Aragon ? How were Aragon and Cas- 
tile united ? What was achieved by Ferdinand ? For what is the year 1492 mem- 
orable ? 



1497.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHEKN EUEOPE. 227 

in the Peninsula (1481) ; and, in 1492, after a long siege, 
the famous Moorish fortress, the Al-ham'bra, was surren- 
dered ; and the Saracen power in Spain came to an end, 
after an existence of 779 years. This year (1492) is also 
memorable for the discovery of America hy Columbus, under 
the auspices of Queen Isabella. 

Portugal. 

87. This kingdom was originally a part of Castile ; but in 
1095, King Alfotiso VI. granted it to his son-in-law, Henry 
of Burgundy, who was to rule as a vassal. Henry's son and 
successor, Alfonso, gained a great victory over the Saracens, 
and, throwing off his allegiance to Castile, made Portugal 
an independent kingdom (1139). This led to a fierce con- 
test with Castile, which lasted for a long time ; but ended 
in favor of the Portuguese, who were governed for more 
than two centuries by the descendants of Alfonso, whom 
they had chosen for his virtues and his valor. 

38. Alfonso III. extended the kingdom to its present lim» 
its, by the conquest of Al-gar've, the most southern province, 
which he wrested from the Moors, after a contest of three 
years (1252). During the reign of John, Prince Henry, the 
Navigator, one of the wisest and best men of his age, 
planned and directed several voyages in order to explore 
the coast of Africa, and discover a passage around it to the 
Indies. Under John II., Bartholomew Diaz {de'az) reached 
the stormy cape at the extremity of the continent (I486), 
to which the king of Portugal gave the name of Good 
Hope;* and, in 1497, Vas'co da Ga'ma doubled this cape, 
and succeeded in sailing to India. This voyage and that 
of Columbus revolutionized the commerce of the world. 

• Diaz had called it the " Cape of all the Storms," in consequence of the tempests which he 
had experienced before reaching it. • 

37. Wliat was Portugal originally? How did it become independent ? What 
did this lead to ? How was Portugal governed ? 

38. What is said of Alphonso III. ? Of Prince Henry, the navigator ? By whom 
and when was the Cape of Good Hope discovered ? By whom and when was it 
rounded ? What was the effect of the discoveries made by Columbus and Da Gama 1 



228 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

843. Empire of Germany established under Louis, grandson of 

Charlemagne. 

934. The Hungarians defeated by Hemy the Fowler. 

936-973, Otho the Great. Hungarians defeated. 

973-983. Otho II. Republic of Venice becomes prominent. 

983-1002. Otho III. Kingdom of Poland begins. 
1016. Invasion of Italy by the Normans. Saracens defeated. 

1056-1106. Henry IV. The Papacy of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.). 
1060. Robert Guiscard, acknowledged Duke of Apulia, &c, by 

the Pope. 
1077. Submission of Henry IV. to Gregory VII. 

1084. Rome taken by Henry IV. Gregory VII. deposed. 

1139. Portugal made an independent kingdom. 

1176. Battle of Legnano . 

1183. Peace of Constance. Lombard cities become independent. 

1190. Death of Frederick Barbarossa, after a reign of 38 years. 

1212. Defeat of the Saracens at Tolosa by the Spanish Chris- 

tians. 
1.247. Hanseatic League formed. 

1266. Charles of Anjou becomes king of Naples and Sicily. 

1273. Rudolf I., the first of the Hapsburg line. 

1275. Marco Polo, the Venetian, travels to the East. 

1284. Alfonso the Wise, king of Portugal. 

1315. Battle of Morgarten. Victory -gained by the Swiss. 

1347. ^ Rienzi, the " Last of the Tribunes" at Rome. 
1356. The Golden Bull published by Charles of Bohemia. 

1386. Battle of Sempach. Death of Arnold of Winkelried. 

1396. Sigismund of Hungary defeated by the Turks at Nicopolis. 

" Genoa ceases to exist as an independent republic. 

1414-1418. Council of Constance. John Huss and Jerome of Prague 

condemned and burnt for heresy. 
1419. Defeat of the Turks at Nissa by the Emperor Sigismund. 

1437. Religious freedom granted to the Bohemians. 

1477. Marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. 

1186. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew 

Diaz. 

1492. Granada conquered by Ferdinand of Spain. 

" Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. 

1493. Accession of Maximilian, emperor of Germany. 
1497. Cape of Good Hope doubled by Vasco da Gama. 



CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 229 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGB 

1. Give an account of the battle of Fontenaille, with its cause and conse- 

quences 145-146-213 

2. How was the Carlovingian dynasty begun ? 144 

3. Name, in the order of their succession, six sovereigns of the Carlovin- 

gian dynasty 144-145-146 

4. To what position was Conrad of Franconia raised ? 213 

5. By whom was Germany occupied at that time ? 213 

6. Name the five Saxon emperors that succeeded Conrad 213-214 

7. What did Henry the Fowler achieve for his country ? 213 

8. Give an account of the achievements of Otho the Great 213-214 

9. What events occurred during the reign of Otho H. ? 214 

10. What were the achievements of Otho HI. ? 214 

11. Name the four Franconian emperors of Germany. 214-215 

12. What did Conrad H. and Henry HE. accomplish ? 214 

13. Give an account of the contest between Henry rv. and Gregory VH — 214-215 

14. State what you can of Conrad of Suabia (or Swabia) 215 

15. Of Frederick Barbarossa 215^216-208-221 

16. Of Frederick n 216-209 

IT. Give the history of the Hanseatic League 216 

18. Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 10th 

century 202-228 

19. Name those of the 11th century 184-202-211-223 

20. Name those of the 12th century 184-202-212-228 

21. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212-228 

22. Name those of the 14th century 185-203-228 

23. Give the facts in the reign of Rudolf 1 217 

24. Give an account of the reign of Albert 1 217 

25. Name seven successors of Albert I 217-218-219 

26. What was done by Charles rV. of Bohemia 218 

27. Give an account of the life and reign of Sigismund 218 

28. Give the early history of Switzerland 217-218-220 

29. Give the hi story of Northern Italy from 774 to 1183 220 

30. Give the origin and early history of Venice 220-221-222-223 

31. Give an account of Marco Polo 222 

32. Of the operations of Otho H. in Southern Italy 223-214 

33. Of the Saracens in connection with Southern Italy 223-224 

34. Of Robert Guiscard, his elevation and successes 223-224 

35. Of events in Italy and Sicily which afterward occurred 224 

36. State what you can of Rome, or Papal Italy 224-225 

37. Of the battle of Tolosa, its causes and consequences 225 

38. Give the early history of Aragon and Castile 225-226-227 

39. What can you state of Queen Isabella ? 226-227 

40. Of King Ferdinand and his success in Granada ? 226-227 

41. Give the early history of Portugal 227 

42. What can you state of Alfonzo HI ? 227 

43. Of voyages made by Portuguese navigators ? 227 

44. Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 15th 

century , 185-203-228 



230 



TABLE OP CONTEMPORANEOUS EVENTS. 



A.D. 



England. 



France. 



Other Nations. 



732 

752 

768 

786 

800 

814 

827 

■843 

871 

884 

910 

912 

919 

936 

987 

996 

1013 

1017 

1031 

1042 

1055 

1056 

1060 

1066 

1076 

1084 

1087 

1095 

1100 

1108 

1137 

1152 

1154 

1176 

1180 

1187 

1189 

1199 

1216 

1223 

1226 

1258 

1270 

1272 

1285 

1307 

1314 

1315 

1317 

1322 

1327 

1328 

1347 

1350 

1364 

1377 

1380 

1386 

1396 

1399 

1413 

1414 

14191 

1422 

1453 

1461 

1483[ 



The Saxon 
Heptarchy. 



Victory of Charles Martel. 
End of Merov. Dynasty. 
Accession of Charlemagne. 



Eghert, King of England 
Alfred the Great. 



Empire of the West resto'd 
Death of Charlemagne. 

Div. of Charlemagne's emp 

Charles the Fat. 

Normans settle in France. 



Hugh Capet. 
Robert. 



Sweyn. 

Canute the Great. 



Edward the Confessor. 



Henry I. 



William the Conqueror. 



Philip I. 



William Rufus. 
Henry I. 



Henry H. 



Richard I. 
John. 
Henry HI. 



Edward L 



Edward II. 

Battle of Bannockburn. 



Edward m. 



Richard n. 



Henry IV. 
Henry V. 



Henry VI . 



First Crusade. 

Louis VI. 
Louis VH. 



Philip LT. (Augustus). 



Louis Vm. 
Louis IX. 



Philip HI. 
Philip TV.' 

Louis X. 



Philip V. 
Charles IV. 

Philip VI. 



John. 
Charles V. 

Charles VI. 



Charles VH. 



Edward TV Louis XL 

Edward V. Richard HI. L Charles VHL 



Period 
of the 
Saracen Conquests. 
Haroun al Raschid. 



Louis Emp. of Germany. 



Fatimite dynasty begins. 

Henry the Fowler. 
Otho the Great. 



The Normans in Italy. 



Seljuks take Bagdad. 
Henry IV. of Germany. 
Robert Guiscard. 

Turks take Jerusalem. 
Hildebrand deposed. 



Frederick Bai-barossa. 
Battle of Legnano. 
Saladin takes Jerusalem 



End of Saracen Empire. 
Mongols take Iconium. 

Battle of Morgarten. 
Rienzi. 



Battle of Sempach. 
Battle of Nicopolis. 



Council of Constance. 
Battle of Nissa. 

Constantinople taken. 



MODERN HISTORY. 231 



PAET III. 

MODERN HISTORY, 

Extending from the latter part of the Fifteenth Century to the present 

time. 

1. The epoch at which Modern History commences is the 
dawn of intelligence that broke upon Europe in the latter 
part of the 15th century. The civilization of the Greek 
Empire disappeared before the conquering arms of the rude 
and ferocious Ottomans, just as the West, emerging from 
the night of mediaeval ignorance, began to glow with the 
first beams of an intellectual and social illumination. Liter- 
ature, science, and art, at this auspicious era, sprang into 
active life ; as the human mind, shaking off the chains in 
which feudal barbarism had bound it, resumed its activity, 
exulting in its new-found freedom. 

2. The causes of this wonderful change have been in part 
shown, in connection with the history of the middle ages ; 
but they are here more distinctly stated. The partial de- 
struction of the feudal system had released, to some extent, 
the masses from the degrading condition of serfdom, and 
given to them some share of civil and political freedom. The 
great barons had been obliged to surrender their dangerous 
privileges to the monarchs; while the people, summoned 
to aid one or the other party in the struggle, had been able 
to wrest from both the rights of which they had been un- 
justly deprived. 

3. Science had begun its wonderful reformation. The 



1 . When does Modern History commence ? What is said of this epoch ? 

2. What causes are assigned for the changes which had taken place ? 

3. What inventions are specified among these causes ? 



232 MODEE^" HISTORY. [1485. 



conveniences and comforts of life were increased ; the modes 
of warfare were revolutionized by the use of firearms ;* the 
mariner's compass made ocean navigation possible, and thus 
extended commerce, and gave an impulse to exploration 
and adventure. The East was enabled to pour her treas- 
ures into the lap of the West ; and the ends of the earth 
were brought into communication with each other. The 
invention of printing\ gave to the modern world the intel- 
lectual riches of the ancients; and literature commenced 
its magnificent career. The particular events connected 
with each stage and phase of this mighty revolution of 
the world, will be narrated and explained as the history 
proceeds. 



section i. 
Ehglaot. 



From the Accession of Henry VTL, the first of the Tudor s (1485), to 

the present time. 

1. Henry VII. was the son of Edmund Tu'dor and 
Margaret, a descendant of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- 
caster. In order to strengthen his title to the throne, and 
put an end to all dissensions between the rival families, he 
married Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. Being 

* The process of making granulated gunpowder was invented by Schwartz in 1320, and im- 
mediately thereafter almost every state commenced the use of cannon of small size. In 1346 
Edward III. used them at Crecy. Plated armor could then no longer protect the feudal tyrant 
against the weapon of the oppressed peasant. 

t The credit of this invention is contested by the Dutch in favor of Coster (1426), and by the 
Germans on behalf of Gutenberg (1441). Between 1450 and 1455, the latter succeeded in printing 
a Bible, in quarto size, the initial letter of each chapter being executed by the pen, in colors. 



Map Questions. — (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) — What countries in Europe bor- 
der on the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Mediterranean Sea ? On the North Sea ? On 
the Baltic Sea ? On the Black Sea ? What river flows through Austria and Tur- 
key ? What cities are on it ? What cities and towns are laid down on the Map in 
Russia ? In Prussia ? In Germany ? In Italy ? In France ? In Spain ? In Tur- 
key ? Where is Brussels ? Amsterdam ? Waterloo ? Warsaw ? Copenhagen ? 

1. Who was Henry "VTI.? How did he strengthen his title? Whom did he 
imprison ? 



PROGRESSIVE MAP 



/. 




1492.] ENGLAND. 233 

afraid of competitors for the crown, he imprisoned in the 
Tower the young Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of 
Clarence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 

2. The general favor felt toward, the house of York oc- 
casioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insur- 
rections were formed against him. A rumor having been 
circulated among the people that Warwick had escaped 
from the Tower, an attempt was made to personate him ; and 
for this purpose a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, 
a baker's son, was chosen. The impostor was carried to 
Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title of 
Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection 
from spreading in England by exhibiting in public the real 
Earl of Warwick ; and the adherents of the impostor, hav- 
ing landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle 
by the king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, 
was pardoned, and was afterward employed as a domestic 
in the king's household. 

3. Eive years afterward, a more formidable attempt was 
made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the 
throne, by counterfeiting Richard, the younger of the two 
sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered 
in the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a 
young man named Pirlcin Warbeck ; and so well did he 
play his part, that the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Ed- 
ward IV., acknowledged him as her nephew, and greeted 
him with the title of the White Rose of England: James 
IV., king of Scotland, also acknowledged him, and gave 
him the noble lady Gordon in marriage, and invaded 
England in order to raise an insurrection in his favor. 

4. The people, however, refused to receive the pretender ; 
and, after making another attempt in Cornwall, Perkin gave 



2. What caused the king trouhle ? What account is given of Lamhert Simnel ? 

3. What led to the imposture of Perkin Warbeck ? By whom was he acknowl- 
edged ? 

4. What ended this affair ? What became of Perkin Warbeck ? Of the Earl ol 
Warwick ? 



234 ENGLAND. LI 5 09. 

himself up, and was imprisoned in the Tower (1497). 
There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of Warwick, he 
planned with him an escape, but the plot was discovered, 
and both were executed — Perkin being hanged at Tyburn, 
and the unfortunate prince beheaded on a charge of trea- 
son (1499). By this act of cruelty Henry destroyed the 
last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 

5. During this reign, the celebrated navigators, John and 
Sebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a commission 
from the king, and discovered the mainland of North 
America (1497). This was the year before Columbus made 
his third voyage, in which he reached the mainland of 
South America. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very 
much averse to war, because it prevented the gratification 
of his ruling passion, avarice. In order to increase his 
hoards, he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical exac- 
tions ; and two lawyers, named Emson and Dudley, gained 
an infamous notoriety by acting as instruments of his 
rapacity. His treasures amounted at his death to nearly 
two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that period. 
He died after a reign of 24 years, and was succeeded by his 
son Henry (1509). 

6. Henry VIII., when he ascended the throne, was 
only eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and 
popular. During the first year of his reign he married 
Catharine of Aragon, to whom he had been betrothed 
since his eleventh year. This princess had been previously 
married to his elder brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen 
years, who died a few months after the marriage. Henry 
made a special favorite of Tliomas Wolsey (ivool'ze), and 
advanced him successively to the highest honors, though 
he was of very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son 
of a butcher. Wolsey had, however, received an excellent 

5. What maritime adventures occurred? For what was Henry characterized ? 
Who were Emson and Dudley ? When did the king's death occur ? By whom wag 
he succeeded ? 

6. What is said of Henry VIII. ? Whom did he marry ? What is said of Wolsey ? 



1527.] EKGLASTD. 235 

education, and was a man of yery great talents. He was 
afterward made a cardinal by the Pope. 

7. Henry joined the league which was formed against 
France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, haying in- 
yaded France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the 
French in the celebrated Battle of the Spurs, so called from 
the rapid flight of the enemy (1513). In this campaign, 
the Emperor Maximilian enlisted in Henry's army, and 
received pay as one of his subjects and captains. In the 
same year, James IV., king of Scotland, haying inyaded 
England with a large army, was defeated by the Earl of 
Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field ; and the king him- 
self, with the flower of the Scottish nobility, was left dead 
on the field. 

8. Martin Luther haying caused great excitement in 
Europe by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIII., 
who had been carefully educated in the Eomish faith, wrote 
a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the Pope (Leo 
X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal author 
the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years after 
this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a di- 
vorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts 
of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's widow ; 
while the real reason was that he desired to marry Anne 
Boleyn {an ftul'en), an attendant of the queen, with whom 
he had become enamored (1527). 

9. But the Pope, who had recently suffered much in a 
war with the Emperor Charles V., nephew of Catharine of 
Aragon, was unwilling to sanction the divorce ; and the 
king, thinking that the delay in the gratification of his 
wishes was due to the neglect or insincerity of Cardinal 
Wolsey, dismissed him from his high office, banished him 

7. What led to the Battle of the Spurs ? Of Flodden Field ? What was the result 
of this battle ? Where is Flodden Field ? (See Map, p. 158.) 

8. Why was the king styled " Defender of the Faith ?" To whom and why did 
he apply for a divorce ? 

9. What caused the fall of Wolsey? How was he treated ? What £ lying of hia 
is quoted ? 



236 EKGLAtfD. [1535. 

from court, and deprived him of many of his great posses- 
sions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, the king after- 
ward caused him to be arrested on a charge of treason ; but 
death saved the proud cardinal from any further disgrace. 
Among his last words was the well-known exclamation, 
" Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the 
king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs !" 

10. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of 
Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of 
Henry's marriage; and these having generally decided 
against it, Cranmer, who had recently been made Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, opened a court to examine the ques- 
tion ; but the queen refusing to appear before it, he for- 
mally annulled the marriage, and ratified that with Anne 
Boleyn (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judg- 
ment of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with ex- 
communication, the Parliament, under the king's influ- 
ence, confirmed his marriage with Queen Anne, and for- 
mally declared him " the only supreme head on earth of 
the Church of England." By this declaration and other 
acts of Parliament, the English Church was separated en- 
tirely from the Church of Eome (1534). The monasteries 
were afterward suppressed, and some modifications intro- 
duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event 
is known in history as the English Reformation. 

11. Sir Tliomas More, one of the most virtuous and 
learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as 
chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowledge the 
king's supremacy; and the upright Bishop Fisher was con- 
demned and executed for the same offence (1535). The 
king indeed evinced, during the whole of his subsequent 
reign, a spirit of the most cruel bigotry and persecution. 
In abandoning his allegiance to the Pope, he by no means 

1 0. How was Henry's first marriage annulled ? What did the opposition of the 
Pope lead to ? What is this change called ? 

11. Who were executed for denying the king's supremacy? What is said of 
the sentiments and conduct of the king ? 



1547.] ENGLAND. 237 

became a convert to the new doctrines of Luther and others 
against the Eomish faith; and while he plundered the 
churches and monasteries of their possessions, he caused 
those who dissented from their doctrines to be burnt with- 
out the least mercy. 

12. Less than three years had elapsed from his marriage 
with Anne Boleyn, when he caused her to be beheaded on 
a charge of adultery ; but he himself proved her innocence 
and the wickedness of his own conduct, by immediately 
marrying Jane Seymour, to whom he had previously be- 
come attached. This queen having died a short time after- 
ward, he, for political reasons, contracted a marriage with 
Anne of Cleves ; but, on seeing her, he refused to fulfil his 
contract, and caused his minister Cromwell to be executed 
on a charge of treason, because he had been instrumental 
in arranging this unfortunate affair. His next choice was 
Catharine Howard, who, like Queen Anne, was condemned 
and beheaded on a charge of adultery, but was generally 
believed guilty. Catharine Parr, his sixth wife, had the 
sagacity and good fortune to escape his jealous cruelty, and 
survived him. 

13. The last victim of Henry's tyranny was the accom- 
plished Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was beheaded 
on Tower Hill, being unjustly condemned for treason (1547). 
The king survived this event only a few days. Henry VIII. 
"was, without doubt, one of the most remorseless despots that 
ever reigned ; but notwithstanding his arbitrary violation 
of every principle of political and religious liberty, he never 
lost entirely the affection and esteem of his subjects. During 
this reign, the first complete copy of the English Bible was 
printed, and ordered by the king to be placed in every 
parish church. It was based upon the translation of Wil- 



li. What account is given of the subsequent marriages of the king, and the 
circumstances that led to them ? 

1 3. Who was the king's last victim ? When did Henry VIII. die ? What was 
his character ? What translation of the Bible was made ? Who were the most 
notod poets of this period ? What children did Henry VIH. leave ? 



238 ENGLAND. [1553. 

Ham Tyndale, and executed by Miles Cover dale. The most 
noted poets of this period were the unfortunate Howard, 
Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. Henry left three 
children — Mary, daughter of Catharine, Elizabeth, daughter 
of Anne Boleyn, and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The 
last succeeded him. 

14. Edward VI. was in his 10th year on his accession ; 
and the government was administered with great firmness 
by his maternal uncle, Duke, of Somerset, under the title 
of Protector. During the first years of this reign, further 
changes were made in the established religion, and severe 
laws enacted against those who refused to comply with the 
liturgy, as contained in the Booh of Common Prayer, com- 
piled chiefly by Cranmer and Ridley. Some who refused 
obedience were committed to the flames. The Duke of 
Somerset was deprived of his office of Protector (1549), and 
finally executed, through the contrivance of the designing 
and ambitious Duke of Northumberland, who thus became 
Protector (1552). This nobleman induced Edward to set 
aside his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the 
crown to Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of Henry VII., 
who was married to Lord Guilford Dudley, a son of the 
Protector. A short time after this, Edward died, much la- 
mented for his many virtues (1553). 

15. Mary, in spite of all the efforts of Northumberland, 
was acknowledged queen ; and the unfortunate pair, Dudley 
and Lady Jane Grey, suffered death upon the scaffold 
(1554), the queen showing no mercy notwithstanding their 
youth and innocence. The Lady Jane was one of the most 
acconvplished princesses of her time, having been instructed 
in Latin and Greek by the celebrated Roger As'cham. She 
was also possessed of singular amiability, virtue, and piety. 

14. What is said of Edward VI. ? What changes in religion were made ? Who 
compiled the Book of Common Prayer ? What persecution occurred ? What he- 
came of the Duke of Somerset ? Who succeeded him ? What did Northumber- 
land do ? When did Edward VI. die ? 

1 5. What followed the accession of Mary ? What is said of Lady Jane Grey ? 



1558.] ENGLAND. 239 

Her last message to her youthful husband (for neither of 
them was oyer 17 years of age) was : " Our separation will 
be only for a moment ; we shall soon meet each other in a 
place where our affections will be foreyer united, and where 
misfortunes will never more disturb our eternal felicity." 

16. The cherished object of Mary was to restore the 
Eoman Catholic religion; and, in pursuance of it, she 
consented to marry Philip of Spain, son of the Emperor 
Charles V. Through an obsequious parliament, she then 
caused all the statutes of Edward VI. with regard to religion 
to be repealed, and the seyere laws against heresy to be 
reyiyed. Cardinal Pole was sent at her request to England 
as papal legate, and the kingdom formally restored to the 
Eomish Church. One of the most dreadful persecutions on 
record then ensued; and no less than 277 persons were 
burnt at Smithfield, the most eminent among these martyrs 
being Cranmer, Ridley, and Lat'imer. 

17. To please her husband, Philip, now become king of 
Spain, the queen engaged in a war with Erance ; but ill 
success attended her efforts ; and Calais, which the English 
had held for more than two centuries, fell into the hands 
of the French. The queen was greatly mortified at this 
eyent ; and her death occurred a short time after it (1558), 
much to the relief of the nation, who had been disgusted 
with her cruelty and bigotry. During this reign, commer- 
cial intercourse was established with Russia, a passage to 
Archangel having been discovered during the previous 
reign. 

18. Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, who suc- 
ceeded Mary, had been educated in the Protestant faith, 
and her accession to the throne was hailed by the people 
with great rejoicings. The first important event of her 

1 6. What measures did Mary adopt in reference to religion ? What persecution 
took place ? 

1 7. What war did Mary engage in ? What was its result ? What is said of her 
death ? What was established during this reign ? By what means ? 

18. Who succeeded Mary? What measures with respect to relig'on were 
adopted? 



240 ENGLAND. [1569. 

reign was the re-enactment of the laws of King Edward, 
concerning religion, and the re-establishment of the new 
liturgy, to which all were required to conform under severe 
penalties. By the Act of Supremacy all clergymen and 
government officers were compelled to take an oath ac- 
knowledging the English sovereign head of the Church; 
and by the Act of Conformity, no persons were allowed to 
attend any other places of worship than those of the es- 
tablished Church. Hundreds suffered death, imprisonment, 
or other persecution for refusing compliance with these ar- 
bitrary statutes. 

19. The reign of Elizabeth for the first eleven years was 
distinguished for the internal quiet and prosperity of the 
country. She displayed that prudence, vigilance, and ac- 
tivity so necessary in a sovereign, and gained the almost 
universal esteem and admiration of her people. Though 
she was urged by Parliament to enter into the married 
state, and many distinguished princes, both Catholic and 
Protestant, sought her hand, she positively declined all 
such offers, and expressed her determination to remain 
single for life. She owed much of her success in adminis- 
tering the government to the great statesmen whom she 
selected as her ministers, among whom the most prominent 
were Cecil (ses'il), afterward Lord Burleigh^ and Sir 
Francis Walsingham. 

20. There were at this time in the kingdom three religious 
parties — namely : the Churchmen, or those who were at- 
tached to the established Church ; the Roman Catholics, 
who, supported by the great continental powers, expected 
to re-establish their religion ; and the Puritans, who con- 
tended for more radical changes in religious forms and doc- 
trines (1569). These last had imbibed their principles from 
those who, during the persecutions of the previous reign, 

19. What is said of Elizabeth's administration ? Who were her prime minis- 
ters ? 

20. Describe the religious parties existing at this time. What is said of the 
Puritans ? 



1572.] EKGLAKD. 241 

liad taken refuge in Geneva and Frankfort ; and they op- 
posed Elizabeth's government, not only on the ground of 
religious differences, but on account of her assuming a 
prerogative and authority opposed to the civil and political 
rights of the people. It was not, however, until a subse- 
quent reign that these fearless agitators were enabled to 
bring their principles into thorough operation. 

21. England now began to distinguish herself in that 
splendid career of maritime enterprise which has shed such 
lustre upon her name. Under the auspices of Sir Walter 
Raleigh (raiv'le), a favorite courtier of Elizabeth, voyages 
were made to North America, and, the queen gave to the 
regions discovered the name of Virginia (1584). Frobislier 
also made explorations for a northwest passage to India ; 
and Sir Francis Drake completed a voyage around the 
world, by way of Cape Horn and the Cape of G-ood Hope 
(1579). * 

22. The people of the Netherlands having revolted 
against Philip II. of Spain, in consequence of his dreadful 
oppressions and persecutions (1572), Elizabeth warmly es- 
poused their cause ; and Philip, therefore, made extensive 
preparations to invade England and conquer it, so that he 
might restore it to the authority of the Pope. For this 
purpose he equipped an immense fleet, called the Invincible 
Ar-ma'da, consisting of 150 ships, bearing 3,000 guns and 
27,000 men. But this vast armament, as it sailed up the 
Channel, was attacked and partly destroyed by a much 
smaller fleet, under the command of Lord Howard, as ad- 
miral, assisted by those renowned captains, Drake, Fro- 
Msher, and Hawkins. The Spanish admiral, therefore, 
finding it impossible to effect a landing on the coast, or 
gain any advantages over the English fleet, attempted to 
return to Spain by sailing around Scotland ; but a storm 



21. What maritime expeditions were carried on with success? 

22. What led to a war with Philip II. of Spain ? Give an account of the Invin- 
cible Armada. 

Jt 



242 ENGLAND. [1566. 

arising, nearly all his vessels were wrecked off the Orkney 
Islands (1588). 

23. The year preceding this glorious event is memorable 
for the execution of the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots 
at Foth'er-in-gay Castle,* after an imprisonment of more 
than 18 years. Mary was the great-granddaughter of 
Henry VII., and had first married Francis II., king of 
France, in which country she had been educated in the 
Eoman Catholic faith. The early death of her husband 
compelled her return to Scotland, where she assumed the 
throne, although she was much disliked by the Scots on 
account of her religion and her gay manners (1561). 

24. A few years afterward (1565), she married her cousin, 
Lord Darn' ley, with whom she lived very unhappily, on 
account of his misconduct, extravagance, and vicious ex- 
cesses. Becoming jealous of her secretary — one Rizzio 
(ret'se-o), an Italian — Darnley, accompanied by several 
noblemen, rushed one evening into her apartment, where 
she was engaged with her secretary and others, and the 
unfortunate man was seized and hurried into the ante- 
chamber, where he was dispatched with fifty-six wounds 
(1566). Mary subsequently professed to have pardoned 
this atrocious outrage ; but a few months afterward, Darn- 
ley's house was blown up by gunpowder, and he himself 
thus killed. 

25. The suspicion that Mary was accessory to this crime, 
seemed afterward to be confirmed by her marriage with the 
Earl of Bothwell, a dissolute nobleman, who was generally 
believed to have been concerned in its perpetration. This 
caused an insurrection of the nobles, who, having taken 

* Fotherincjay, a parish in Northumberland county, in the central part of England. The 
castle was razed to the ground after the accession of James I. 



23. Who was executed in 1587? Who was Mary, Queen of Scots ? To whom 
was she first married ? Why was she disliked by the Scots ? 

24. What account is given of Lord Darnley? What is stated of Kizzio ? 

25. What led to Mary's imprisonment at Loch Leven ? Where is Loch Leven ! 
(See note, page 243.) What caused her flight to England ? 



1587.] ENGLAND. 243 

her prisoner, compelled her to abdicate the throne, and 
confined her in Loch Lev'en Castle.* She, however, es- 
caped thence, and raised a small army, which was defeated 
by the Eegent; whereupon she fled into England and 
threw herself on the protection of Elizabeth ; but instead 
of the generous hospitality which she anticipated, she found 
herself a captive for life. 

26. Mary had given great offence to Elizabeth, when in 
Erance, by assuming the title of Queen of England, on the 
ground that the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Bo- 
ley n was unlawful ; and hence that her daughter, being ille- 
gitimate, had no right to the throne ; and during Mary's 
whole life, the Catholic party in England favored her pre- 
tensions, many conspiracies being formed by them to place 
her upon the throne. In the last of these, the object of 
which was to take the life of Elizabeth, Mary was found 
guilty of being an accomplice, and sentenced to death; 
and the warrant for her execution having been signed by 
Elizabeth, she was beheaded (1587). 

27. Queen Mary was one of the most beautiful and accom- 
plished princesses of her age. Her manners were graceful 
and winning, and her conversation full of wit and spright- 
ly intelligence. She was a charming singer, and could ac- 
company herself on several instruments; and the poems 
which she has left attest a genius for that kind of compo- 
sition. Her imprudence and want of self-control, and, it 
is to be feared, the absence of strong moral principles, 
brought upon her those great calamities which have shed a 
mournful interest upon her name. The signing of her 
death-warrant is, however, considered by some the greatest 
blot upon the fame of the virgin queen. 

* Loch Lev en, a small lake in the eastern part of Scotland, about twenty miles north of Edin- 
burgh. It contains several islands, on one of which the remains of the castle still exist. This 
lake is not to be confounded with Loch Leven in the western part of Scotland, near which is the 
famous valley of Gle.ncoe. 

26. How had Mary displeased Elizabeth ? What led to her execution ? Where 
is Fotheringay ? (See note, page 242.) 

27. What was the character of Mary? 



244 ENGLAND. [1603. 

28. During the religious wars in France, Elizabeth gave 
all the aid in her power to the cause of the Protestants ; 
and when Henry IV. had ascended the throne she sent him 
money, and a force under the Earl of Essex, to assist him 
in subduing his enemies (1589). Essex was a young noble- 
man who by his merit and accomplishments had gained 
very high favor with the queen ; but he afterward fell into 
disgrace, in consequence of misconduct during an expedi 
tion against the revolted Irish (1599). Disappointed in 
obtaining a pardon from the queen, he entered into a plot 
to raise an insurrection against her, and with his accom- 
plices was arrested, and tried for treason, convicted, and 
finally beheaded (1601). 

29. The fate of this young nobleman, for whom she ap- 
pears to have had a very deep aifection, oppressed the 
queen's mind with a settled melancholy, which was greatly 
increased when she learned that a ring* which he had sent 
to her to recall her tenderness and incite her to clemency, 
had been treacherously withheld by one of his enemies. 
She died in the 45 th year of her reign, at the age of 70 
(1603), leaving a reputation for prudence, vigor, and ability 
unsurpassed by any sovereign that ever reigned. 

30. During this illustrious reign, flourished the poet 
Spenser, who wrote the Faerie Queene ; Sir Philip Sidney, 
the author of Arcadia ; and the immortal poet and drama- 
tist Sliakespeare, whose works are the especial glory of Eng- 
lish literature. Bacon also commenced his splendid career 
as a philosopher, but disgraced himself by his virulence 
against Essex, from whom he had received many favors and 
benefits. 

* This ring had been previously given to him by the queen, with the promise that whenever 
he should send it to her, it should not fail to remind her of their friendship, and awaken hei 
tender regard for him. 



28. What was Elizabeth's course toward the French Protestants? Give an 
account of the Earl of Essex. 

29. How was Elizabeth affected by his sad fate ? When did her death occur ? 
What is said of her reputation ? 

30. What eminent writers flourished during her reign ? What is said of Lord 
Bacon ? 



1603.] EtfGLAKD. 245 

The Stuakt Family. 

31. James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded 
Elizabeth, not only by right of birth, but by the nomination 
of the late queen. He had been proclaimed King of Scot- 
land under the title of James VL, after the abdication of 
Mary (1567), being then an infant; and thus, on his acces- 
sion to the English throne, the two countries became united 
under one monarch, although they continued for about a 
century to have their own separate legislatures. 

32. In the first part of this reign, a conspiracy was formed 
to subvert the government and place Arabella Stuart, the 
king's cousin, on the throne; and in this scheme the cele- 
brated Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of being concerned, 
and was kept in imprisonment for several years, during 
which he wrote his " History of the World." Being released 
in order that he might point out a gold mine which he 
said existed in Guiana (ghe-ah'nah), and, having failed in 
the expedition, he was, on his return, beheaded, in pur- 
suance of the sentence previously pronounced against him 
(1618). This act reflects a lasting disgrace upon James, 
who sacrificed this illustrious man to appease the anger of 
Spain, incensed by the attack which Ealeigh had made 
upon some of the Spanish settlements in South America. 

33. The Eoman Catholic party, disappointed in not re- 
ceiving the religious liberty which they had expected from 
James, arranged, in 1605, a plot to overturn the government 
by the destruction of the king and Parliament. For this 
purpose a vault below the House of Lords was hired, and 
thirty-six barrels of gunpowder stored therein, which, on 
the opening of Parliament, were to be fired by one Guy 
Fawhes, an officer in the Spanish service, brought to Eng- 
land for the purpose. This conspiracy, styled the " Gun- 

3 1 . Who succeeded Elizabeth ? What countries became united ? 
3$. What conspiracy was discovered? What account is given of Sir Waltei 
Ealeigh? 
33. What account is given of the Gunpowder Plot ? 



246 ENGLAND. [1607. 

powder Plot," was discovered just on the eve of its execu- 
tion, and Guy Fawkes and some of his fellow-conspirators 
were executed. 

34. James, although of a pusillanimous disposition, was 
very persistent in upholding the royal prerogative, being 
prone on all occasions to insist on the divine right of kings 
to rule without control. His arbitrary acts and principles, 
however, met with decided opposition from the Parliament 
of 1621, who declared their privileges to be the ancient 
and undoubted birthright of the English people ; which 
declaration so incensed the king, that he sent for the 
Journals of the Commons, and tore the record out with 
his own hands. The same* Parliament impeached the 
celebrated Lord Bacon for bribery ; of which being found 
guilty, he was punished by a heavy fine, and dismissal 
from all his offices. 

35. The king's high-handed measures, especially against 
those who refused to conform to the established Church, so 
disgusted the Puritans that they emigrated in large num- 
bers, at first to Holland, and afterward to New England, 
where they established a settlement at Plymouth (1620). A 
settlement was effected in Virginia, during the previous 
part of this reign (1607), at a place named, in honor of the 
King, Jamestoivn. 

36. One of the worst characteristics of this monarch was 
his proneness to attach himself to unworthy favorites, the 
first of whom was Robert Carr, a young Scotchman, on 
whom James for several years lavished the most profuse 
favors, bestowing on him the title of the Sari of Somerset. 
Carr was succeeded in the king's favor by George Villiers 
(vil'yerz), who was created Duke of Buckingham, and 
gained an infamous notoriety by his profligacy and arro- 
gant conduct. 

34. What were the political principles of James I. ? What opposition was made 
by the Parliament of 1621 ? What is said of Lord Bacon ? 

35. What led to the settlement of Jamestown and Plymouth ? 

3 6. Who were the favorites of James II. ? What is said of them ? 



1625.] ENGLAND. 247 

37. James had been educated by the celebrated George 
Bu-chan'an of Scotland, and possessed considerable learn- 
ing, of which he was passionately fond of making a display; 
so that, although he was excessively nattered by his cour- 
tiers, his pedantry gained him very general ridicule. -The 
distinguished French minister, Sully, very aptly styled him 
" the wisest fool in Christendom." He was as much devoid 
of dignity of manners and conversation as of good sense, 
his unseemly familiarity being equal to his childish vanity 
and offensive arrogance. On his death, in 1625, he was 
succeeded by his eldest son Charles. 

38. One of the most important events of the reign of 
James I. was a new translation of the Bible, under the pat- 
ronage of the king, and by a number of learned men desig- 
nated by himself. It was completed in 1611 ; and having 
superseded other versions, continues to be the English Bible 
in general use among Protestants. The charter granted to 
the East India Company by Queen Elizabeth was renewed 
by James in 1609; and in 1612, the first English factory 
was established at Su-rat'. 

39. Charles I., on his accession, was in his 25th year ; 
and soon afterward he married Henrietta Maria, daughter 
of the French king Henry IY. In order to prosecute a 
war with Spain, which had been brought on by the arro- 
gance and misconduct of the Duke of Buckingham, he 
summoned a Parliament, and asked for a vote of supplies. 
This the Commons, under the leadership of Sir Thomas 
Wentworth, Sir John Eliot, and others, refused to grant, 
unless Charles would relinquish some of the prerogatives 
which had been exercised by his father, and which he still 
claimed as his hereditary right. Charles, therefore, dis- 
solved the Parliament, and levied money by his own au- 
thority. 

37. Describe the character of James TJ. When did his death occur? 

38. What other events occurred during the reign of James II. ? 

39. Who succeeded James I. ? Whom did Charles marry ? What caused a diffl 
culty with Parliament ? Who were the popular leaders ? 



248 ENGLAND. [1629. 

-» — — - — - ~ — — - ~ ~ - — - — ~~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ — ■ ~—~ ~— ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ^ — ~~~ —— ~~~~ —~ —— ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~~~ 

40. These forced loans, called tonnage and poundage,* 
and ship-money, \ gave great offence to the people, whose 
discontent was still further increased by the conduct of 
Buckingham, — particularly by the failure, through his mis- 
management, of an expedition designed to assist the Hu- 
guenots, or French Protestants, in their contest with Riche- 
lieu (reesh'e-lu). In a succeeding Parliament, accordingly, 
the king met with more determined opposition ; and the 
famous Petition of Right\ was adopted, to which the king 
was obliged to giye his assent (1628). Soon after this the 
Duke of Buckingham was assassinated at Portsmouth, by 
an officer of the army whom he had offended. 

41. A fourth Parliament having been assembled (1629), 
and proving refractory, the king determined to rule with- 
out a parliament, and continued his illegal exactions. He 
also, by means principally of the court of Star Chamber, § 
attempted to punish such of the popular leaders as had 
made themselves particularly obnoxious. Some of them 
were fined for what was called their seditious language in 
Parliament ; but they refused to pay the fines, and Sir John 
Eliot died in prison. Charles, however, chose some of his 
ministers from among the popular leaders ; one of whom, 
Sir Thomas Wentworth, was created Earl of Strafford, and 
became the chief-minister of the king. 

42. Another cause of complaint was afforded by the policy 

* Tonnage and poundage were duties on imported merchandise which it had been customary to 
allow the king to levy since the reign of Edward III. The Parliament of 1625 refused, however, 
to grant this privilege to the king for a longer period than one year. 

t Ship-money was an arbitrary tax levied on the seaports for the equipment of a fleet. Charles 
extended it over the whole kingdom. 

| The Petition of Right was an emphatic statement of the privileges of the people as conferred 
by previous enactments. It is regarded as the Second Great Charter of English liberties. 

§ The Court of Star Chamber was of very ancient origin, and derived its name from the cham- 
ber of the king's palace at Westminster in which it used to hold its sessions, the ceiling of this 
apartment being decorated with stars. It had very extensive powers, both civil and criminal, 
and could adjudge cases without the intervention of a jury. Hence it became a formidable in- 
strument of tyranny. It was abolished by act of Parliament in 1641. 



40. What further displeased the people ? What were tonnage and poundage and 
ship-money ? (See note.) What did the Parliament of 1628 do ? What is meant hy 
the Petition of Right ? (S-^e note.) 

41. What arbitrary measures did Charles afterward adopt? What was the 
Jtar Chamber? (See note.) Who opposed the king? Who hecame Earl of Straf- 
ford? 

42. What other cause of complaint was given the people ? What course did the 
Puritans pursue ? What led to the Scottish Covenant ? What was it ? 



1641.] E^GLAKD. 249 

of the king with regard to religion. Under the influence 
of Archbishop Laud, the liturgy was altered and the ritual 
increased by many of the ceremonial observances of the 
Eomish Church, very much to the disgust of the great body 
of the English people, but particularly of the Puritans. 
Many of the latter, to avoid conforming to the require- 
ments of the established Church, emigrated to New England, 
and founded Massachusetts and other colonies in that coun- 
try. Charles also attempted to force this liturgy upon the 
Scottish people ; but they rose in insurrection against it ; 
and the famous Covenant was formed and signed, according 
to which they solemnly bound themselves to unite for their 
mutual defence, and to resist all religious innovations (1638). 

43. The king requiring them to relinquish the covenant, 
a war ensued ; and a Scottish army invaded England, which 
after defeating a detachment of the royal forces at the Tyne 
Eiver, took possession of Newcastle. This compelled the 
king finally to call another Parliament, in order to obtain 
supplies. This body, memorable as the Long Parliament, 
assembled in 1640, and immediately commenced the re- 
dress of public grievances. One of its first acts was the 
impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, who was particularly 
odious to the popular leaders for his desertion of their cause, 
and for the aid he had given the king in carrying out his 
most arbitrary measures. Being tried and found guilty of 
treason, he was beheaded, the king having ungratefully 
given his assent to the execution (1641). Archbishop Laud 
was also impeached and imprisoned in the Tower ; but his 
execution did not take place until four years afterward. In 
the same year, a dreadful insurrection broke out in Ireland 
against the government, and the English were massacred 
with every species of cruelty (1641). 

44. Meanwhile, the Parliament continued its measures 

43. What war ensued ? When did the Long Parliament meet ? What measures 
did it adopt? What was Strafford's fate ? Laud's? What insurrection broke out ? 

44. What extraordinary step did the king take ? What was the effect ? What 
is said of Hampden ? 



250 E^"GLAKD. [1642. 

of redress ; and the king took a step which still further in- 
flamed the popular indignation against him. Going with 
an armed retinue to the House, he demanded that five of 
its members should be pointed out to him in order that they 
might be seized. But the Speaker, Lenthall, refused to com- 
ply, boldly declaring that he was the servant of the House, 
and could only act in accordance with its directions. The 
king therefore retired without effecting his object, amid the 
low murmurs of "Privilege! privilege!" from the indig- 
nant members (1642). Among the five members thus as- 
sailed was the noted patriot John Hampden, who, a few 
years before, had gained the applause of the people by mak- 
ing a bold stand against the illegal levy of ship-money. 

45. The king, whose conduct was characterized by great 
irresolution as well as rashness and imprudence, afterward 
apologized for this breach of the privileges of Parliament ; 
but the latter was now determined on extreme measures, 
and demanded the royal assent to propositions which would 
have stripped him of all authority. Finding a large party 
in his favor, he collected what forces he could, and erected 
the royal standard, resolved to stake the issue upon the 
sword. The Parliament had also made preparations for 
the struggle; and thus was commenced that great civil 
war which raged for years between those who supported 
the authority of the king and those who wished to limit, or 
destroy it (1642). 

46. The royalists, or cavaliers (as they were called), in- 
cluded the greater part of the nobility, clergy, and landed 
gentry, with all who were attached to the established 
Church, and also the Catholics. The supporters of Parlia- 
ment were chiefly composed of the yeomanry of the coun- 
try, the townspeople, and the dissenters, or Puritans. 

45. What was tne subsequent conduct of the king? Tell how and when the 
great civil war began. 

46. Who supported the king, and what were they called ? Who were the sup- 
porters of Parliament ? *Vhai name was given to them ? Why? By whom were 
the armies respectively commanded ? Who was Prince Rupert ? (See note, p. 251.) 



1643.] ENGLAND. 251 

These were called Roundheads, in derision of their custom 
of wearing their hair cropped short. The parliamentary 
forces were at first led by the Earl of Essex, those of the 
king, by the Earl of Lindsay. The cavalry of the latter 
was commanded by the famous Prince Rupert.* 

47. The first general engagement took place at Edgehill, 
and Lindsay was mortally wounded and taken prisoner ; 
but there was no decisive victory on either side (1642). In 
a skirmish the next year the illustrious John Hampden 
was mortally wounded ; and his loss was felt as a severe 
blow to the popular party. Several battles were fought 
during the same year (1643), the most important of which 
was that of Neivbury. The result was still indecisive; but 
the royalists lost one of their chief supporters in the brave 
and eloquent Lord Falkland [faiuh'land), who while he 
had at first firmly and patriotically opposed the unjust 
pretensions of the king, stood by him when the attempt 
was made by Parliament to deprive him of his legal au- 
thority. 

48. The Parliament entered into negotiations with Scot' 
land to combine their forces against the king ; and, princi- 
pally through the address of Sir Henry Vane, who had 
been sent as a commissioner to Edinburgh, a "solemn 
league and covenant" was entered into by which the Scot- 
tish people renewed the pledges of the previous covenant, 
and bound themselves to assist the cause of the English 
Parliament. A large army was, accordingly, sent into 
England ; but this was counterbalanced by a considerable 
force which the king succeeded in obtaining from Ireland 
(1643). Lord Fairfax, who commanded the parliamentary 

* Prince Rupprt was the son of Frederick, Elector-Palatine, and Elizabeth, daughter of 
James I. ; so ihatthe reigning king, Charles I., was his uncle. He was not only prominent in 
this war, but afterward acquired great distinction in the naval operations of England. Subse- 
quently he became noted for his researches in- science and the useful arts. 



47. What account is given of the hattle of Edgehill? Of Newbury? Where 
are Edgehill and Newbury? (See Map, p. 158.) Where and when was Hampden 
killed ? Lord Falkland ? What is said of the latter ? 

48. What led to the " Solemn League and Covenant ?'•' What followed ? Whc 
laid siege to York ? 



252 ENGLAND. [1648. 

forces in the north, formed a junction with the Scotch, and 
laid siege to York. 

49. The arrival of Prince Eupert with a considerable 
army raised the siege and led to the battle of Marston 
Moor, in which the Royalists sustained a severe defeat, 
principally through the activity and skill of Oliver Crom- 
well, by whom Prince Eupert's cavalry was routed and his 
artillery captured (1644). A short time after this, the com- 
mand of the parliamentary army was transferred to Sir 
TJiomas Fairfax, a man entirely under the influence of 
Cromwell ; and the next year (1645) a very decisive victory 
was achieved by Fairfax over the king's forces at Naseby 
(naze' be), in which Cromwell especially distinguished him- 
self by his skill and valor. 

50. After other reverses, the king, despairing of success, 
gave himself up to the Scottish army (1646), expecting to 
be treated with respect and liberality ; but the Scots de- 
livered him up to the English Parliament, by whom he was 
kept a prisoner (1647). Soon afterward, the sect of dis- 
senters known as Independents, triumphed over their rivals, 
the Presbyterians; and Cromwell, who belonged to the 
former, obtained, through his influence with the army, 
control of the Parliament. Finding the Presbyterian 
members hostile to his views, he caused the house to be 
surrounded by two regiments under Colonel Pride, one of 
his trusty officers, and excluded all but the most deter- 
mined of the Independents. This invasion of the Parlia- 
ment was called, in derision, "Colonel Pride's Purge" 
(1648). 

51. Meanwhile, the king had offered important conces- 
sions, which the Presbyterians were disposed to accept ; but 
which the Independents, who now constituted Parliament, 

49. Give an account of the battle of Marston Moor. Whe,re is Marston Moor ? 
(See Map, p. 158.) What is said of Oliver Cromwell ? To whom was the command 
of the Parliamentary army transferred ? Describe the battle of Naseby. Where is 
Naseby ? (See Map, p. 158.) 

50. How did the king fall into the hands of the Parliament ? How did Crom- 
well obtain control of the Parliament ? What was " Colonel Pride's Purge ?" 



1649.] ENGLAND. 253 

voted to be unsatisfactory, Cromwell and the other generals 
who were controlled by him desiring the entire subversion 
of the government, and the establishment of a republic. 
. Accordingly a vote was passed that the king had been guilty 
of treason in levying war against his Parliament ; and a court 
was organized to try him. This court was presided over by 
Bradshaw, and consisted of 133 members, among whom 
were the chief officers of the army ; and, although the king 
refused to acknowledge its authority, he was found guilty, 
and three days after his condemnation was beheaded (Jan. 
30, 1649). 

52. The Scots had protested against this whole proceed- 
ing, and foreign nations interceded in the king's behalf. 
The Prince of Wales, anxious to save his father's life, sent 
a blank sheet of paper, subscribed with his name and sealed 
with his arms, on which the judges might write what con- 
ditions they pleased as the price of the king's release ; but 
these men could not be moved from their purpose. A few 
days after the death of Charles, the Commons abolished the 
House of Lords, and formally proclaimed the establishment 
of the Commonwealth, declaring it high treason to acknowl- 
edge Charles, the Prince of Wales, King of England. 

53. The character of Charles I. was in many respects 
worthy of commendation. In his private relations his con- 
duct was quite exemplary, being entirely free from those 
vices which so often sully the character of kings. As a 
monarch, his principal fault was insincerity, by which he 
lost the confidence of his people ; for he gave his assent to 
measures of reform which he subsequently endeavored to 
evade. His arbitrary conduct finds some apology in the 
fact that his predecessors had exercised the same powers 
which he claimed ; but his prudence and moderation were 
not sufficient to convince him that the great change which 

51. What led to the trial and execution of the king? 

52. What was done to obtain the king 1 8 release ? How was the Common weal tl 
established ? 

53. What is said of the character and conduct of Charles I. ? 



254 ENGLAND. [1651. 

had taken place in the sentiments of the people necessitated 
a corresponding change in the royal pretensions ; since the 
influence of authority can never prevail over that of public 
opinion. 

54. The Commonwealth. — Cromwell, as Lord Lieu- 
tenant, having entirely subdued the insurrection which had 
broken out in Ireland, was next sent by the Parliament to 
Scotland, where the Covenanters had proclaimed Charles II. 
king, and had raised a large army for his support. They 
were entirely defeated by Cromwell in the battle of Dun- 
bar (1650) ; after which Charles determined to march into 
England, expecting to obtain large accessions to his army. 
But in this he was disappointed; and being promptly 
pursued by Cromwell, was defeated at Worcester (woos'ter), 
where the whole Scottish army were either killed or taken 
prisoners (1651). Charles escaped from England with 
great difficulty, being obliged to travel for two months in 
the disguise of a peasant. At one time, he concealed him- 
self for twenty-four hours in a large oak-tree, while his 
pursuers passed on. This tree was afterward known as the 
Royal Oak. 

55. The affairs of the English republic, under the admin- 
istration of the Parliament, continued to be prosperous. 
The Portuguese were humbled by Admiral Blake ; Ireland 
was reduced to submission by Ire'ton, one of Cromwell's 
generals; and Scotland was entirely subjugated by General 
Monk, whom Cromwell had left to complete the work com- 
menced by the battle of Dunbar. Being offended by the 
haughty behavior of the Dutch republic, the Parliament 
passed the famous " Navigation Act," which prohibited all 
nations from importing any merchandise into England or 
her colonies except in English ships, or in the ships of the 



54. What led to the battle of Dunbar? The battle of Worcester ? Where are 
Dunbar and Worcester? (See Map, p. 158.) How did Charles n. escape ? 

5 5. What victories were gained by the English dui'ing the administration of the 
Parliament ? What was the " Navigation Act ?" What did it lead to ? What vie 
tories were gained by Blake ? 



1653.] ENGLAND. 255 

country where the goods were produced. The Dutch being 
at this time the principal commercial nation of Europe, a 
war was brought on, in which Blake gained several splen- 
did victories over the Dutch fleets, commanded by Van 
Tromp and De Ruy'ter (1652-3). 

56. Meanwhile, Cromwell perceiving that the Parlia- 
ment had become jealous of his power, determined to dis- 
solve it. Accordingly, going to the House with 300 sol- 
diers, he loaded the members with the vilest reproaches, 
and bade them "to be gone and give place to honester 
men." Then commanding the soldiers to clear the hall, 
he ordered the doors to be locked ; and putting the keys in 
his pocket, departed to his lodgings (1653). Thus, being 
supported by the army, he obtained the supreme power of 
the government. Desiring, however, to preserve some of 
the forms of the republic, he issued writs for the election 
of 140 persons, who were to constitute a parliament. 

57. These, by his management, consisted of the meanest 
and most fanatical of the citizens ; one of whom, a leather- 
seller named Praise-God Barebone, having made himself 
conspicuous by his sanctimonious cant and long prayers, 
the Parliament was called, in derision, Barebone's Parlia- 
ment. Another name for it was the " Little Parliament." 
Cromwell, however, soon dissolved this ridiculous assembly, 
and caused himself to be appointed "Lord Protector." He 
was to be assisted by a Council of State, and was bound to 
summon a parliament every three years (December, 1653). 

58. A short time previously, Van Tromp, the distin- 
guished Dutch admiral, had been shot in an action with 
the English under Blake ; and the Dutch, terrified by their 
losses and overwhelmed with the expense of the war, solicit- 
ed peace. This was at last signed by Cromwell, and a de- 



56. How did Cromwell disperse the Parliament ? What was his next step ? 

57. Give an account of Barebone's Parliament? Why was it so called ? What 
office did Cromwell assume ? 

58. When and in what way was peace made with the Dutch ? Wuat is said of 
Cromwell's administration? 



256 ENGLAND. [1658 

fensive league was established between the two republics, 
the honor of the flag being yielded to the English (1654*). 
The administration of Cromwell was characterized by great 
vigor and ability. He boasted that he would make the 
name of Englishman as much feared and respected as had 
been that of Roman ; and the uniform success of his nayal 
and military enterprises went far to realize this saying. 

59. Under Blake, the English fleets achieved an uninter- 
rupted series of victories. He subdued the Barbary Powers 
(1655), and defeated the Spaniards in several important 
actions (1656-7). His death occurred in 1657. Blake was 
an inflexible republican ; but he disapproved of the usur- 
pations of Cromwell, notwithstanding the honors which 
the latter heaped upon him. During the war waged with 
Spain, the island of Jamaica was captured by an English 
squadron under Admirals Penn and Venables (1655) ; and 
Dunkirk was captured from the Spaniards by the combined 
forces of France and England (1658). 

60. Cromwell, although prosperous abroad, was at home 
involved in very great difficulties. He had called two Par- 
liaments successively ; but not finding them subservient to 
his views, he had promptly dissolved them (1654-1656). 
He was threatened with conspiracies against his govern- 
ment ; and, after reading a book published by one Colonel 
Titus, and entitled " Killing no Murder," he became afraid 
of assassination, and constantly wore armor under his 
clothes, and carried pistols in his pockets. At last the 
dreadful anxiety of his mind brought on a fever, of which 
he expired (Sept. 3, 1658), — the anniversary of the day on 
which he had gained the victories of Dunbar and Worcester. 

61. Cromwell was in his sixtieth year when he died. He 
was of a robust frame of body, and of a manly, though not 

59. What was accomplished by Blake ? When did he die ? What was his char- 
acter ? What conquests were made from Spain ? Where is Dunkirk ? (See Map 
of France, p. 188.) 

60. What difficulties had Cromwell to contend with? How and when did hi? 
death occur ? 

6 1 . What is said of the character and conduct of Cromwell ? 



1G60.] ENGLAND. 25? 

an agreeable aspect. His character had very many traits 
of greatness. No one can gainsay the splendid talents 
which he displayed, both as a general and a statesman ; 
and, had he rightfully possessed the sovereign power, he 
would undoubtedly have compared favorably with any 
monarch that ever reigned, both for ability and upright- 
ness. But his perverted ambition, not content with re- 
dressing the grievances, and establishing the liberties, of 
his country, prompted him " to wade through slaughter to 
a throne ; " and, therefore, instead of receiving the bene- 
dictions of his countrymen, he was execrated and ab- 
horred. 

62. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father in the 
office of Protector ; but his want of capacity for so diffi- 
cult a position was soon manifest, notwithstanding he was 
supported by General Monk, who commanded the army 
in Scotland, and by his brother Henry, as Lord Lieuten- 
ant of Ireland. A Parliament was called, but it having 
given offence to the army officers, the latter compelled 
Richard to dissolve it (1659). Soon after this he signed 
his own abdication, and thus left the supreme authority 
to the army, who then ruled by a council of officers. 
The country being threatened with anarchy and civil war, 
General Monk marched his army into England, and sub- 
dued the contending factions. A Parliament was then 
called, and Charles II was proclaimed king (May 29, 1660). 
This event is known in English history as the Restora- 
tion. 

63. Charles II. came to the throne with the universal 
rejoicings of the people. At the commencement of his 
reign, an act was passed pardoning all who had taken part 
in the Great Rebellion, except the regicide judges, some of 
whom were tried and executed. On the anniversary of the 

62. Who succeeded Oliver Cromwell ? What was Richard Cromwell's char- 
acter ? What led to his abdication ? How was the Eestoration effected ? 

63. What is said of Charles's accession ? What punishment was inflicted upon 
the late rebels ? Who became prime minister ? 



258 ENGLAND. [1664 

late king's death, the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Brad- 
shaw were disinterred, hanged on the gallows, then decapi- 
tated, and their heads fixed on Westminster Hall. With 
this exception the king showed great moderation and clem- 
ency, and admitted into his council both Boyalists and 
Presbyterians. Sir Edward Hyde was created Earl of 
Clarendon, and made prime minister. 

64. The most remarkable feature of this period was the 
entire change which took place in the sentiments of the 
people. During the reign of Charles I. they manifested 
the most intense zeal for liberty ; but now they seemed 
eager to eyince an equally extravagant spirit of submission. 
Under the control of the Puritans, they seemed to think 
that religion consisted in gloom, austerity, and the sacrifice 
of all social gayety and pleasure ; but, going to the opposite 
extreme, they now plunged into riot and dissipation. Every 
thing religious or serious was ridiculed ; and nothing but 
scenes of gallantry and festivity occupied the general at- 
tention. The monarch set the example, and indulged him- 
self in mirth and festivity, while those who had suffered 
in his father's cause were left in wretchedness and neglect. 

65. After a short time, however, the king's profusion and 
reckless self-indulgence considerably abated the people's 
loyalty, and they could not forbear making comparisons 
between this slothful and licentious monarch and the great 
Protector who had made the name of England so glorious 
throughout the world by his careful and vigorous adminis- 
tration. Dunkirk, which had been acquired during that 
splendid period, was now sold to the French to supply 
means for the king's extravagant pleasures (1664). 

66. The same year (1664), war was commenced against 
the Dutch ; and the English took possession of Neiv Neth- 
erlands in North America, and captured some of the Dutch 

64. Describe the change that had occurred in the popular sentiments. 

65. What disgusted tbTe people with Charles II. ? 

66. What important events occurred during the Dutch war? Who took side? 
with the Dutch ? What terrible naval action ensued ? 



1667.] ENGLAND. 259 

settlements in Africa. De Euyter retaliated by attacking 
Barbadoes and some of the other English dependencies. 
A great naval battle was fought off the eastern coast of Eng- 
land, in which James, Duke of York, brother of the king, 
defeated the Dutch fleet with immense loss (1665). France 
then took sides with the Dutch republic ; but the combined 
fleets of the allies, commanded by the great admiral De 
Euyter and the Duke of Beaufort, were defeated by the 
English under the Duke of Al-be-marle' (previously Gen- 
eral Monk) and Prince Eupert. This battle lasted four 
days, and was one of the most terrific naval engagements 
ever fought (1666). 

67. Meanwhile the Great Plague had broken out in Lon- 
don ; 'and such was its virulence, that the deaths in the 
city alone were estimated at not less than 100,000 during 
the year (1665). Close upon this calamity followed the 
Great Fire, which raged for three days, and destroyed 13,200 
dwelling-houses, besides 90 churches (1666). The desire of 
Charles to save expense, in order that he might have means 
for his extravagant indulgences, led to neglect in keeping 
up the naval force of the kingdom ; and the Dutch, taking 
advantage of this, defiantly entered the harbors, and did 
immense havoc to the shipping. They even sailed up the 
Thames, extending their ravages as far as London Bridge 
(1667). Peace was, however, declared the same year. 

68. The disgraceful close of this war, together with the 
previous measures, made the government very unpopular ; 
and Clarendon was impeached and banished. Five minis- 
ters, called afterward the Cabal, were then chosen, who 
adopted the policy of restraining the French king Louis 
XIV. in his ambitious scheme of seizing the Spanish 
Netherlands.* A league was formed with Holland and 

* That part of Netherlands which remained in possession of Spain after the Dutch provinces 
had revolted and achieved their independence. It included the present kingdom of Belgium. 



67. What calamitous events occurred in London ? Describe each. What were 
the Dutch enabled to do ? When was peace made ? 

68. What caused Clarendon's fall ? What was the Triple Alliance ? What led 
to it ? What treaty did Charles n. make with France ? 



260 ENGLAND. [1674. 

Sweden, called the Triple Alliance ; and Louis was com- 
pelled to abandon his enterprise (1668). Charles afterward 
became dissatisfied with the alliance and concluded a dis- 
graceful treaty with Louis, in which he agreed to assist the 
latter in subjugating Holland, and also consented to make 
a public profession of the Catholic faith. For this he was 
to receive as a compensation an immense sum of money 
yearly from the French coffers (1770). 

69. Shortly afterward (1672), England joined France in 
a war against the Dutch ; and while the fleets of the latter 
contended with those of the English, commanded by the 
Duke of York, the French army inyaded the territory of 
the republic, captured many of its cities, and drove it to 
the extreme measure of opening the sluices and inundating 
the country. In these perilous circumstances the Dutch 
forces were commanded by William, Prince of Orange, 
who gained great distinction by his determined courage 
and patriotism. The war continued till 1674; when it had 
become so unpopular, that the king was compelled to make 
a treaty of peace with the Dutch provinces.* 

70. While this war was in progress, the Test Act had 
been passed by Parliament, obliging all government officers 
to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to ab- 
jure the Eomish doctrines. The Duke of York, therefore, 
who had made a public profession of Komanism, resigned 
his office as admiral, and was succeeded in the command 
by Prince Eupert. Much excitement was occasioned by 
an alleged conspiracy (called the " Popish Plot") on the 
part of the Catholics to set fire to the city of London, as- 
sassinate the king, and betray the country to the French. 
The principal witness in this absurd accusation was one 

* The Dutch Republic was called the "Republic of the Seven United Provinces." It included 
the present kingdom of Holland. 

69. What war was wagged with the Dutch? To what extremity were they re- 
duced ? Who commanded their forces ? When and how did the war end ? 

70. What was the Test Act ? What course was pursued hy the Duke of York ? 
What was the so-called " Popish Plot ?" Who was the chief witness ? Who suf- 
fered death ? 



1683.] EKGLA^D. 261 

Titus Oates, who was afterward proved to be of a most 
infamous character. Before the imposture was discovered, 
many innocent persons suffered death, among them the 
aged and illustrious Earl of Stafford (1680). 

71. In the year 1679, was passed the famous Ha'be-as 
Cor'pus* act, securing all subjects from imprisonment, ex- 
cept where it can be shown to be justified by law. This 
was designed to check the illegal and arbitrary arrests 
made by the authority of the king, who in every respect 
exercised the most despotic sway. He deprived many of 
the cities, London included, of their charters, in order to 
extort money for their restoration ; and no one felt him- 
self secure from the numerous gang of spies and informers 
who were employed by the court. This state of things led 
to a conspiracy, called the Eye-House Plot (1683). 

72. The members of this plot were, Lord William Rus- 
sell. Alger non Sidney, John Hampden (grandson of the 
great patriot), the Duke of Monmouth (the king's natural 
son), and others. The object was to restore the liberties 
of the country by dethroning its present arbitrary mon- 
arch ; but the conspirators did not agree as to the mode of 
accomplishing it. Monmouth expected the throne him- 
self, Russell wished simply reform, and Sidney was en- 
thusiastic for the restoration of the republic. The plot 
having been discovered, Russell and Sidney were beheaded 
(1683) ; but Monmouth, who at first had fled, was after- 
ward pardoned. The death of Charles occurred a short 
time afterward (1685) ; and his brother, the Duke of York, 
succeeded, under the title of James II. 

73. In the first part of the reign of Charles II. (1667), 

* Habeas Corpus, means "have the body." The writ, or order of the court of justice, was so 
called because it enjoins any person restraining another's liberty, to have Ms body, that is, to 
produce the prisoner, before the court, so that the cause of his detention may be known. 



71. When and why was the Habeas Corpus Act passed? What is meant by 
Habeas Corpus? (See note.) What infamous measures were resorted to by 
Charles ? To what did they lead ? 

72. Who were engaged in the conspiracy? With what designs? What waa 
the result ? When did the king's death occur ? Who succeeded him ? 



262 ENGLAND. [1685. 

the celebrated poet, John Milton, published his greatest 
work, "Paradise Lost." This illustrious mau had been 
Foreign Secretary under Cromwell, and had distinguished 
himself by his writings in defence of the commonwealth. 
His principal contemporaries in the field of literature were 
John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress ;" Samuel 
Butler, who wrote " Hudibras," a burlesque poem on the 
Puritans and the Civil War ; and John Locke, the author 
of the immortal "Essay on the Human Understanding." 
Dryden also wrote several of his finest poems, and was 
made poet-laureate. The drama received many talented 
contributions from Ot'ivay, Wych'er-ly, and others; but, 
taking its character from the court, it was shamefully im- 
moral. Sir Matthew Hale, the just judge and pious writer, 
also flourished during this period. 

74. James II., notwithstanding the glory he had acquired 
as a naval commander, was very unpopular on account of 
his religion, to which he showed the greatest attachment. 
The Duke of Monmouth, who had fled to Holland during 
the preceding reign, now set up a claim to the throne, and 
landing in England, was soon joined by a considerable force. 
He was however completely defeated at Sedge' moor,* and 
being apprehended after the battle, was tried and executed 
(1685). The most dreadful persecution followed of those 
who were implicated in the rebellion. Trials were held 
under the infamous Judge Jeffries; and many innocent 
persons were condemned and executed. This wicked judge 
boasted of the large number of persons (more than 300) 
whom he had caused to be hanged. 

75. The imprudent zeal of the king in promoting the 
Roman Catholics to power, occasioned great excitement and 

* Sedyemoor, a wild tract of country in the southwestern part of England, not far from Bristol 
Channel. 

73. What is said of John Milton ? What other eminent writers are referred to ? 
What was the character of the Drama ? 

74. What made James H. unpopular? Give an account of Monmouth's rebel- 
lion. What was the conduct of Judge Jeffries ? 

T5. What led to the imprisonment of the bishops by James n. ? 



1689.] ENGLAND. 263 



dissatisfaction. Having issued a proclamation allowing 
liberty of conscience, and declaring that non-conformity to 
the established religion should no longer be punished, he 
required that this declaration should be read in all the 
churches. This the clergy refused to obey ; and a petition 
was presented against it by seven bishops, including San- 
croft, the primate. James, exasperated at this opposition, 
caused the bishops to be arrested and imprisoned in the 
Tower (1688). 

76. The popular excitement produced by this act of the 
king was intense. Crowds attended the bishops as they 
were conducted to the Tower, and signified their sympathy 
and veneration in every possible way. The acquittal of the 
bishops after their trial at Westminster Hall, still further 
increased the commotion, even the soldiers whom James 
had collected for his protection taking part against him. 
A few months afterward, William, Prince of Orange,* who 
had married Mary, the daughter of James II., taking ad- 
vantage of the popular indignation against the king, set 
sail from Holland with a large fleet and army, and proceeded 
to England. Having effected a landing at Toroay, he 
marched toward London; whereupon, James, finding him- 
self without support, fled to France. 

77. A convention of representatives was immediate!}' 
assembled (Jan. 1689) ; and the crown was bestowed on 
William and Mary for their lives, the succession being 
settled on the Princess Anne, second daughter of James II., 
who had married Prince George of Denmark. The con- 
vention annexed to this settlement a Declaration of Rights, 
definitely fixing the extent of the king's prerogative, and 
more precisely stating the constitutional principles of the 

* William was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., and consequently was a nephew 
of James II. ; and Mary, his wife, was his first cousin. Setting aside the family of James II., 
W illiam was thus the next lawful heir to the throne. 



76. What excitement did it produce ? What caused the flight of the king ? 

77. What was done hy the Convention ? What was the Declaration of Eights 
What were its chief articles ? What did they afterward constitute ? 



264 exgla:nt>. [i692. 

government. Among these the chief articles were : 1. The 
king cannot suspend the laws or their execution; 2. He 
cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament; 
,3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown; 4. A 
standing army cannot be kept in time of peace without the 
consent of Parliament; 5. Elections and parliamentary 
debates must be free, and Parliaments must be frequently 
assembled. These acts of the convention were afterward 
confirmed by a Parliament regularly summoned, in an enact- 
ment called the Bill of Rights, and constituted what is 
called in English history the Glorious Revolution of 1688.* 

78. William and Mary. — Although the crown had 
been conferred jointly upon William and Mary, the adminis- 
tration of the government was exclusively intrusted to the 
former. James II. having received a considerable naval 
force from the French king, Louis XIV., proceeded to 
Ireland, where the people were generally favorable to his 
cause. He was received with great demonstrations of joy, 
and a large army was soon collected for his support. He 
was, however, entirely defeated by "William in the celebrated 
Battle of the Boyne, and was again compelled to take refuge 
in France. The next year Ireland was entirely subdued ; 
and the Scottish Highlanders, who had taken up arms in 
favor of James, were induced to submit to the government. 
In connection with the pacification of the Highlands, oc- 
curred the dreadful Massacre of Glencoef (1692). 

79. The war with France still continued; and, in 1692, 

* So called, although it took place in 1689 (January); because, until 1752, the English com- 
menced the year on the 25th of March. 

t Mclan of Glencoe, Chief of the McDonalds, had delayed taking the oath of allegiance to the 
king; and the enemies of the clan, taking advantage of this circumstance, obtained an order fnr 
its military execution. Accordingly, a body of soldiers entered the valley of Glencoe, and 
cruelly put to the sword all who failed to escape, including men, women, and children. The 
signing of this order has subjected King William to very severe censure. Glencoe is situated at 
Loch Leven, in the western part of Scotland. 



•J 8. Who now administered the government? What led to the hattle of the 
Boyne ? What were its results ? Where is the Boyne River ? (See Map, p. 158.) 
What massacre occurred in Scotland ? Where is Glencoe ? (See note.) 

79. Give an account of the battle of La Hogue ? What was its effect? Where 
is Cape La Hogue ? (See note, p. 265.) When and how did the war end ? When 
did Mary die ? What title did William take ? What was his character ? What is 
said of Mary ? 



1701.] EHGLA^D. 265 

the French fleet was defeated by the combined English 
and Dutch fleets, under the command of Admiral Russell, 
in the famous battle of La Hogue {hog)* This disastrous 
defeat decided the fate of James, and destroyed his hopes 
of ever regaining the English throne. The war, however, 
was not formally terminated until the treaty of Rys'wick 
(1697).f William, by the death of Mary, in 1694, became 
sole ruler, under the title of William III. His own death 
occurred in 1702. He was a man of great abilities, both 
for war and statesmanship, and a most excellent sovereign ; 
but the austerity of his manners made him unpopular. 
The character of Mary was very amiable and exemplary. 

80. Anne. — This reign is almost wholly occupied by the 
" "War of the Spanish Succession," — so called because it was 
waged against Louis XIV. of France, who, in the prosecu- 
tion of his ambitious schemes, attempted to obtain the 
control of Spain* by placing one of his own relatives on the 
throne of that country. This had led, in 1701, to the 
formation of a league, called the Grand Alliance, between 
England, Holland, and Germany, the object of which was 
to check the encroachments of the French king. Louis 
XIY. had given additional cause of complaint to William 
by acknowledging, on the death of James II., the son of 
the latter King of England (1701). War, for which prepa- 
rations had been already made, was formally declared 
against France shortly after the accession of Queen Anne ; 
and the chief command of the army was conferred on the 
Duke of Marl' borough (1702). 

81. During the first campaign, Marlborough made some 
conquests in Flanders; and in the next, he defeated the 

* Cape La Hogue is in the northern part of France, a short distance east of Cherbourg, and is 
not to be confounded with Cape La Hague, to the west of Cherbourg, 
t Ryswick is a small town in the western part of Holland, 35 miles southwest from Amsterdam. 



80. With what was Queen Anne's reign chiefly occupied? What caused the 
war of the Spanish Succession ? On whom was the chief command conferred ? 

8 1 . What victories were gained by Marlborough ? Who commanded the impe- 
rial forces ? Where is Blenheim ? (See note, p. 266.) Where is Kamillies ? (See 
Map, p. 188.) What fortress was taken by the English ? What victory was gained 
at Turin ? Where is Turin ? (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 

12 



266 EKGLAKD. [1713. 

French and Bavarians, in the memorable battle of Blen- 
heim* {Uen'lnme) (1704). The celebrated Prince Eugene 
commanded the imperial troops in this battle. During the 
same year, the English fleet captured Gibraltar; and this 
strong fortress has eyer since remained in the possession of 
Great Britain. In 1706, Marlborough gained another bril- 
liant victory over the French at Ramillies (ram'e-leez), and 
by means of it made almost an entire conquest of Flanders. 
The French also received the same year a terrible over- 
throw from Prince Eugene, at Tu'rin. 

82. The year 1708 was signalized by another great victory 
over the French at Ou'den-arde, which was followed, the 
next year, by the terrific battle of Malplaquet (mal-plah'lca), 
in which the allied army, under Marlborough, routed the 
French, but with the dreadful loss of 20,000 men. This 
decided victory finished the campaign in Flanders (1709). 
Shortly afterward, Marlborough being accused of dishonest 
practices in connection with the army contracts and ac- 
counts, was dismissed by the queen from all his appoint- 
ments. The parliament also having passed a vote of cen- 
sure of his conduct, he retired from England in disgust> 
and took up his abode in the Netherlands. Peace was 
concluded with France by the treaty of Utrecht (u'treM), in 
1713. The following year the queen died. She was very 
popular, receiving the title of the "Good Queen Anne;" 
but, according to some authorities, she was full of preju- 
dices, easily influenced by flattery, and blindly guided by 
her female favorites. 

83. Her reign was not only distinguished for military 
achievements, but was characterized to such an extent for 

* Blenheim is a small village in Bavaria, on the Danube, 23 miles W. N. W. of Augsburg 
(See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 

82. What other victories were gained by Marlborough ? What led to his fall ? 
Where are Oudenarde and Malplaquet ? (See Map, p. 188.) What treaty was made 
with France ? Where is Utrecht ? (See Map, p. 188.) When did the queen's death 
occur ? What is said of her character ? 

83. What is said of the literature of this period? What union was effected? 
What line ended with Queen Anne ? 



1706.] ENGLAND. 26? 

progress in science and literature, that it has been called 
the "Augustan Age of England." Addison, Steele, Pope, 
Bolinglroke, and Swift were the most eminent writers of 
this period. The chief political event was the " Constitu- 
tional Union of England and Scotland/' in 1707. These 
two countries, since the accession of James I., had acknowl- 
edged one sovereign, each having its own separate legis- 
lature ; but, since the union of 1707, they have both sent 
representatives to the same Parliament. Queen Anne was 
the last sovereign of the House of Stuart. 

House of Brunswick. 

84. George I. was the son of the Duke of Brunswick, 
Elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, granddaughter of 
James I. To this king England seemed always a foreign 
country, for the people and institutions of which he had 
very little sympathy or affection. He was fifty-four years of 
age when he commenced to reign. Those who favored the 
cause of the Stuarts, called Jac'o-Mtes, excited an insurrec- 
tion in Scotland in order to place James, the Pretender, 
son of James II.,* on the throne (1715). The rebels, under ; 
the Earl of Mar, were defeated and compelled to surrender ; 
and many of the leaders of the rebellion, among them the 
Earl of Derwentivater, were executed. The Earl of Mar 
and the Pretender both escaped to France. 

85. One of the most noted occurrences of this reign was 
the South Sea Scheme. This was the project of a corpora- 
tion, called the South Sea Company, to pay off the national 
debt, then about £35,000,000, by profitable mercantile en- 
terprises with the Spaniards in South America. The gov- 
ernment gave its consent to the scheme, and allowed its 

* James, the Pretender, was frequently styled the Chevalier of St. George. 

8 4. Who was the first of the House of Brunswick ? Who was George I. ? What 
is said of him ? Who were the Jacohites ? Give an account of the insurrection in 
Scotland, and its result. 

85. Give an account of the South Sea Scheme and its consequences. When did 
Marlborough die ? What is said of him ? When did the king's death occur ? 



268 EHGLAKD. [1727. 

stock to be exchanged for the company's stock, which, in 
consequence of the rage for speculation pervading all classes 
of the people, reached the extraordinary premium of 900 
per cent. The bubble, however, soon burst, and occasioned, 
for a time, wide-spread embarrassment and ruin (1720). 
The Duke of Marlborough, who had been restored to his 
office of captain-general, died in 1722. This great general 
is said to have been so illiterate that he could not write 
his native language correctly. Avarice was the greatest 
blemish in his character. George I. died of apoplexy while 
on a visit to his native country (1727). 

86. George II. succeeded his father at the age of forty- 
four years. Sir Robert Walpole, who had been prime minis- 
ter during a large part of the previous reign, was continued 
in office, and administered the government, in a manner 
conducive to the peace and prosperity of the country, till 
his resignation, in 1742. A difficulty occurred with Spain 
during his administration, partly on account of a dispute 
with respect to the boundary of the American colony Geor- 
gia, which had been settled by General Oglethorpe in 1733, 
and named after the king. Admiral Vernon, who was sent 
out with a fleet to attack the Spanish settlements, captured 
Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Darien (1739). 

87. The next year, with a large naval and land force, he 
attacked Car-tha-ge'na,* the strongest Spanish settlement 
in America ; but, after destroying most of its forts, he was 
compelled to retire. Another squadron, under Commodore 
Anson, took and destroyed one of the Spanish cities in 
Peru, and, together with other prizes, captured an East 
India galleon, laden with gold and silver. Anson's expedi- 
tion lasted nearly four years, he having returned by way of 

* Carihagena, or Cartagena, is a considerable town on the northern coast of South America, 
now in the United States of Colombia. 



86. Who succeeded George I.? What celebrated man was prime minister ? 
What led to a difficulty with Spain ? What place was taken by Admiral Vernon ? 

87. What important place was taken the next year? Give an account of An- 
eon's expedition. 



1745.] EiTOLAKD. 269 

the Cape of Good Hope, thus completing the circumnaviga- 
tion of the globe (1740-1744). 

88. Meanwhile, England had become involved in a conti- 
nental war. On the death of Charles VI., Emperor of 
Germany (1740), Louis XV., king of France, setting aside 
the hereditary claims of Maria Theresa (te-re'zah), the 
Emperor's daughter, had caused the Elector of Ba-va'ri-a to 
be raised to the imperial throne, and had raised a large army 
for his defence. Maria Theresa taking refuge among the 
Hungarians, was acknowledged by them as their queen ; 
while England, supporting the claims of the Austrian 
princess, was involved in a war with Erance. This is called 
in history the " War of the Austrian Succession." 

89. The most important events of this war were the de- 
feat of the French at Dettingen (def ting-en)* by#an allied 
army of the English and Germans, partly under the com- 
mand of George II. in person (1743) ; and the defeat of the 
allies (England, Holland, and Austria) under the Duke of 
Cumberland, by the French, under Marshal Saxe (sax) 
(1745), in the memorable battle of Fontenoy\ (fon-ta- 
nivah'). The operations of the war also extended to the 
American colonies ; and Louisburg, an important French 
fortress, called, from its strength, the " Gibraltar of Amer- 
ica," was captured (1745). "While these events were in pro- 
gress, an unsuccessful attempt had been made by Prince 
Charles, the Pretender, grandson of James II., to invade 
England, with a considerable army under Marshal Saxe 
(1744). After the battle of Fontenoy, Charles succeeded 
in landing in Scotland, though without any military sup- 
port (1745). 

90. Being joined by a small army of Highlanders, he de- 
feated the royal forces ; and, having taken Edinburgh and 

* Dettingen is a village of Bavaria, on the Main River, east of Frankfort. 

t Fontenoy is a village of Belgium, 43 miles southwest from Brussels, about halfway between 
Oudenarde and Malplaquet. (See Map, p. 188.) 

88. Explain the causes that led to the " war of the Austrian Succession." 

89. What were the chief events of the war? What conquest was made in 
America? What was done hy Prince Charles, the Pretender, in 1744 and 1745? 



270 ENGLAND. [1759. 

some other cities, he caused, his father to be proclaimed 
King of Scotland, under the title of James VIII. He next 
marched into England, but was soon compelled to retreat, 
being pursued by the royal army, under the Duke of Cum- 
berland, second son of George II. The two armies at length 
met at Cul-lo'den ; and a battle was fought, in which the 
Pretender and his adherents were entirely defeated (1746). 
This was the last battle fought on the soil of Great Britain, 
and closed the struggle made by the Stuarts to regain their 
lost throne. Prince Charles wandered in disguise through 
the country for five months ; but, at length, succeeded in 
effecting his escape to France. 

91. A treaty of peace was made with Prance at Aix-la- 
Chapelle, in 1748, by which Maria Theresa's claim to the 
throne was confirmed ; but the war was soon after renewed 
in consequence of disputes respecting the boundary of the 
French and English territories in America. In 1755, 
General Braddoch was defeated by the French in an expedi- 
tion against Fort du Quesne (doo-kanety ; but General John- 
son gained a victory over the French and Indians at the 
head of Lake George, Baron Dieskau {de-es-ko'), their com- 
mander, being wounded and taken prisoner. An expedi- 
tion under Colonel MoncMon (monk'tun), the same year, 
drove the French from Nova Scotia. In 1759, General 
Wolfe succeeded in reaching the " Plains of Abraham " 
with his army, and defeated the French forces under the 
Marquis of Montcalm (mont-kam 1 ). Both generals were 
killed. Quebec capitulated after this victory, which vir- 
tually gave to the English possession of Canada. 

92. Meanwhile, England had taken part in the famous 
Seven Years' War, brought on by a coalition of France and 

90. Give a further account of the Pretender. Where was he finally defeated ? 
For what is the hattle of Culloden noted ? Where is Culloden ? (See Map, p. 158.) 
How did Charles escape ? 

91. What treaty closed the war with France ? When and why was it renewed ? 
What events occurred in 1755 ? When and how was Quebec taken ? 

92. What was the " Seven Years' War?" Why did the English engage in it? 
Who was prime minister? What caused the retirement of the Duke of Cumber 
land ? Who gained victories in India ? When did George n. die ? 



1760.] E^GLAKD. 271 

several of the other European states, against Frederick the 
Great of Prussia. Principally with the object of defending 
the Electorate of Hanover, England formed an alliance 
with the Prussian monarch ; and, under the able adminis- 
tration of William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham, the 
government displayed great vigor and enterprise. The 
want of success, however, of the Duke of Cumberland 
enabled the French to overrun Hanover (1757), at which 
the king was so indignant that he treated his son with the 
greatest coldness. Offended by this treatment, the victor 
of Culloden resigned all his offices, and went into retire- 
ment. Hanover was recovered the next year after its con- 
quest, and important advantages were gained by Frederick. 
Lord Olive also won a series of splendid victories over the 
French in India, achieving the conquest of Bengal. Before 
the war was brought to a close, the king died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his grandson, under the title of George III. (1760). 

93. George III. was twenty-two years old when he 
ascended the throne, and was the first king of the House 
of Brunswick that was born in England. Pitt soon after- 
ward retired from the government, and was succeeded by 
Lord Bute, a man of indifferent merit, but an especial 
favorite of the king. The arms of Great Britain and her 
allies continued to be successful in Europe, notwithstand- 
ing her enemies were strengthened by the accession of 
Spain; but the government^ desired peace, which was 
finally attained by the Treaty of Paris, made in 1763. The 
most important conquests made by the English during this 
long war were those in North America and India. In the 
latter country, the genius of Clive had laid the foundation 
of the British power so firmly, that the French could never 
afterward regain their influence. 

94. Shortly after this peace, the famous Stamp Act was 



93. What is said of George III. ? Who succeeded Pitt ? What treaty was made 
in 1763 ? What conquests had been made during the war ? 

94. What caused a war with the American Colonies ? 



272 E^GLAKD. [1783. 

passed, for the purpose of raising a revenue in America 
(1765). The colonies resisted the measure, on the ground 
that they were not represented in the English Parliament, 
and that " taxation and representation" are, by the British 
Constitution, inseparable. The measure was greatly op- 
posed in Parliament by the Earl of Chatham and others, 
as impolitic and unjust ; but the government insisted on 
their right to tax the colonies; and the latter, after a 
resistance of ten years, were finally driven into the War of 
the Eevolution, which commenced at Lexington, Massa- 
chusetts (April 19, 1775). 

95. The next year, the thirteen Colonies, through their 
representatives in Congress, declared their independence 
(July 4), which, after a determined struggle of nearly seven 
years, they successfully achieved, the British general Corn- 
wallis being compelled to surrender his army to George 
Washington, at Yorktown (Oct. 19, 1781). Previous to this 
event, the Americans under General Gates had compelled 
the surrender of a British army under Burgoyne, at Sara- 
toga (1777) ; and the French king, Louis XVL, taking ad- 
vantage of this success, had acknowledged the independence 
of the colonies. A war, therefore, ensued between England 
and France, which continued until 1783, when a treaty of 
peace was concluded at Paris, one of the conditions of 
which was, that the independence of the American colo- 
nies should be acknowledged. 

96. During this period, important advantages had been 
• gained by the British in India under Warren Hastings , 

but the measures which he adopted to obtain money, in 
order to make the large remittances expected by the East 
India Company, were characterized by great oppression 
and injustice against the natives and their rulers. On his 

95. What measure was adopted by the Colonies ? How was their independence 
achieved ? What victory led to an alliance with France ? What treaty closed the 
war with France and the Colonies ? 

96. What led to the impeachment of Warren Hastings? Give an account of 
his trial. What distinguished orators took part in it ? 



1801.] ENGLAND. 273 

return to England, articles of impeachment were presented 
against him in Parliament by the celebrated Edmund 
Burke, and the trial that ensued is one of the most memo- 
rable in history. It commenced in 1788, and lasted till 
1795, resulting in the acquittal of Hastings. This trial is 
not only remarkable for its length, but for the brilliant dis- 
plays of oratory to which it gave occasion, on the part of 
the managers of the impeachment, Burke, Sheridan, Fox, 
Windham, and others,— a galaxy of great men unsurpassed 
for splendor in the annals of Great Britain. 

97. Meanwhile, the great French revolution had broken 
out (1789), and in its progress all Europe was convulsed. 
The British government, under the administration of Wil- 
liam Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, took an active part 
against the revolutionists in Erance, whose dreadful ex- 
cesses had disgusted and alarmed every civilized nation 
of Europe. After the execution of the French king, Louis 
XVI., in 1793, Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain 
formed a coalition to restore the monarchy in France. Few 
victories were, however, gained over the French armies; 
but the English fleets, under Nelson and others, acquired 
great glory. In 1798, Nelson fought the " Battle of the 
Nile,"* in which he destroyed the ships that had conveyed 
Napoleon and his army to Egypt; and in 1801, he bom- 
barded Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleets 
This had the effect to prevent a threatened alliance of the 
Northern powers against Great Britain. 

98. An important victory was gained (1801) by Sir Ralph 
Aoercrombie over the French forces left by Napoleon in 
Egypt to menace the power of Great Britain in the East ; 
after which a treaty of peace was concluded at Amiens 
(am r e-enz) with the French government, then under the 

* In Aboukir Bay, northern part of Egypt. (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 

97. When did the French revolution commence ? What course did Great Britain 
take ? Into what coalition did she enter ? What victories were gained by Nelson ? 

98. What victory was gained by Sir Ralph Abercrombie ? What peace was con- 
cluded ? What union was effected in 1801 ? 

12* 



274 EtfGLASTD. [1814. 

• " 

control of Napoleon as First Consul (1802). Previous to 
this, Ireland was constitutionally united to Great Britain, 
its separate legislature being abolished (1801). 

99. The year after the conclusion of the "Peace of 
Amiens," war again broke out between England and 
France ; and England was threatened with an invasion by 
Napoleon, but it was too strongly defended by its powerful 
fleets to render such an undertaking practicable. During 
this war, Nelson gained his most splendid victory, defeat- 
ing the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape Traf- 
algar'; but it was dearly bought by the English, for their 
great admiral fell mortally wounded in the action (1805). 

100. In 1808, the "Peninsular war" was commenced, 
being caused by the unjust attempt of Napoleon, then em- 
peror of France, to place his brother Joseph on the throne 
of Spain, in opposition to the wishes of the people of that 
country. Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward created Duke of 
Wellington, was sent with an army to prevent the consum- 
mation of this project ; and he defeated the French (1808) 
in the decisive battle of Vimeira (ve.-ma'e-rah).* Sir John 
Moore, who had been sent to co-operate with the Spaniards 
against the French, was compelled to retreat, receiving no 
aid from the inhabitants. He afterward fell ih the battle 
which took place at Co-run'na, where the French were re- 
pulsed ; and the English troops made their escape from the 
country, with the assistance of the fleet (1809). 

101. Under Wellington, the war was continued in the 
Peninsula until 1814; and the victories at Ta-la-ve'ra 
(1809), at Sa-la-man'ca (1812) and Vit-to'ri-a (1813) re- 

* Vimeira is a small town near the western coast of Portugal, about 30 miles northwest from 
Lisbon. (See Progressive Map No. 7.) 



99. When did the war with France recommence? What was threatened? 
What brilliant victory was gained by Nelson ? Where is Cape Trafalgar ? (See 
Map, p. 226.) 

100. What caused the "Peninsular War?" Give an account of the battles of 
Vimeira and Corunna. Who felt in the latter ? Where is Vimeira ? (See note.) 
Where is Corunna ? (See Map, p. 226.) 

101. What victories were gained by Wellington ? Point out the places on the 
Map (p. 226). What part did Great Britain take in the resistance made to Napo 
leon ? What other war was waged ? What caused it ? When was peace made ? 



1820.] ENGLAND. 275 

fleeted great glory on the British general's name. Mean- 
while, Great Britain had been active in the opposition made 
by the great European powers against the ambitious 
schemes of the Emperor Napoleon ; and, both by her coun- 
sels and pecuniary as well as military aid, contributed not 
a little to his downfall in 1814. During this period war 
had also been waged with the United States, brought on 
principally by the unjust claims of Great Britain to the 
right of searching American vessels for deserters and British 
seamen, in order that she might seize them or impress them 
into her service. This war was formally closed by the 
Treaty of Ghent* (Dec. 24, 1814). 

102. Napoleon, escaping from Elba, to which he had been 
banished, and resuming the throne of France, again aroused 
the European nations against him. This led to the mem- 
orable battle of Waterloo, in which Wellington gained his 
most splendid victory (June 18, 1815). Thus was ended 
the great struggle which for nearly 25 years had been made 
by Great Britain, to check the conquests of the Erench, and 
preserve the " balance of power " in Europe. To accom- 
plish this end immense sacrifices of men and money had 
been made, the national debt having been increased to 
nearly 900 millions sterling. 

103. George III. died in 1820, after a reign of sixty 
years, — the longest in English history. It was distin- 
guished not only for its remarkable military events, but 
for its progress in commerce, science, and the useful arts, 
for the general diffusion of knowledge, and for its splendid 
productions of literary genius. The greatest name in the first 
part of this reign is that of Samuel Johnson, the author of the 
English Dictionary, and also renowned for his talents as a 

* Ghent is a noted city in the western part of Belgium. • 



1 02. What led to the battle of Waterloo ? What was the result of it ? Where 
is Waterloo ? (See Map, p. 188.) What had these wars cost Great Britain ? 

103. When did the death of George in. occur? What is said of this reign? 
What celebrated writers nourished during it ? What was the character of George 

in.? 



276 ENGLAND. [1827. 

poefc, critic, and essayist. Gibbon and Hume stand promi- 
nent as historians ; and Young, Gray, Burns, and Coivper, 
as poets. The closing portion of the reign is illumined by 
the names of Byron, Shel'ly, Words' worth, Cole'ridge, Scott, 
and a host of others, whose works have been the especial 
glory of the present century. The private character of 
George III., in every relation of life, was worthy of esteem ; 
but his moderate abilities, narrow views, and obstinacy as 
a king, have subjected his name to considerable obloquy, 
if not contempt. 

104. George IV., who succeeded his father at the age 
of 58, had been noted for his profligacy and extravagance 
in the previous part of his life. He was a man of polished 
manners, but was perfectly unprincipled and heartless. As 
Prince Eegent he had been virtually king for ten years be- 
fore his accession, George III. having become incapable of 
governing on account of insanity. Almost the first act of 
the new monarch was an attempt to obtain a divorce from 
his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. The accusations brought 
against her were believed to be unfounded, and popular 
sympathy was strongly in her favor ; so that when, on ac- 
count of the able defence of her by Henry Brougham [after- 
ward Lord Brougham (broo'am) ], the king failed in his 
object, the public joy was so great that there was a general 
illumination. She died a short time afterward. 

105. The Greeks having for some years struggled to 
throw off the Turkish yoke, finally secured the aid of Eng- 
land, France, and Eussia, whose combined fleets defeated 
and destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the battle 
of Navarino {nah-vah-re'no) (1827). By this event the 
independence of Greece was achieved ; after which it was 
erected into a separate kingdom, the crown being conferred 

1 04. What is said of George IV. ? Give an account of the trial of Queen 
Caroline. 

105. How did the Greeks obtain their independence? Where is Navarino? 
(See Prog. Map, No 7.) Who became king of Greece ? What is said of Byron ? 
What important measure was adopted ? Who aided in bringing this about ? 



1837.] ENGLAND. 277 

upon Prince Otlw, of Bavaria. During this contest Lord 
Byron went to Greece to render aid to the oppressed in- 
habitants ; but he did not live to witness the triumph of 
the cause, dying at Mis-so-lon' glii {-ghe) in 1824 Another 
important event of this reign was the removal of civil and 
political disabilities from the Roman Catholics, a measure 
greatly aided by the efforts of the celebrated Irish orator 
and patriot, Daniel O'Connell. George IV. died in 1830. 

106. William IV., late Duke of Clarence, and brother 
of George IV., succeeded to the throne on the death of the 
latter. A short time after his accession, measures of Par- 
liamentary reform were loudly called for by the people ; and 
a Reform Bill was brought in by Lord John Russell, which 
passed in 1832. The effect of this law was to extend the 
right of suffrage, and distribute the representation more 
equitably among the different parts of the kingdom. The 
year 1834 is memorable for the abolition of slavery through- 
out all the British colonies. The sum of £20,000,000 was 
awarded by Parliament to the planters as a compensation 
for the loss of the slaves emancipated ; and nearly three- 
fourths of a million of human beings were set free. Wil- 
liam's reign was terminated by his death in 1837; but, 
brief as it was, it was replete with beneficent measures which 
have made it dear to the memory of the English people. 

107. Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and niece 
of William IV., succeeded the latter on the throne, which 
she has continued to occupy up to the present time. The 
connection between Great Britain and Hanover, which had 
lasted 123 years, was dissolved on her accession, since the 
laws of the latter country exclude females from the throne. 
Her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, accordingly succeeded 
William IV. as King of Hanover. In 1837, an insurrection 



106. By whom was George IV. succeeded? Give an account of the Reform 
Bill. What other important measure was adopted ? When did William IV. die ? 
What was the character of his reign ? ' 

107. Who succeeded William IV.? What country was separated from Great 
Britain ? Give an account of the Chartists. 



278 ENGLAND. [1846. 

broke out in Lower Canada, on account of the discontent 
of the people toward the government ; but tranquillity was 
soon restored, Upper and Lower Canada being united 
into one province. Disturbances were also caused by the 
Chartists, an association of radical reformers, who demanded 
a "new charter," embodying universal suffrage, vote by 
ballot, and the entire abolition of the property qualification 
of members of Parliament. Great mass meetings of the 
people were held, at one of which as many as 200,000 per- 
sons were computed to have been present. The demands 
of the Chartists being refused, riots ensued, which, however, 
were soon put down (1839). 

108. In 1840, Queen Victoria was married to Prince Al- 
bert of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha (one of the German states). 
An insurrection in Cdbul (Jcali-bool') expelled the English 
from Af-ghan-is-tan' ; and the retreating army, of 17,000 
men, nearly all perished from cold, famine, and the attacks 
of the Afghans (1841). Under Lord El'len-oor-ough, Ca- 
bul was retaken, and its fortifications destroyed ; but Af- 
ghanistan was abandoned (1842). The reduction of Scinde 
{sind), a district on the lower Indus, by Sir Charles 
Na'pi-er, was the next event of importance (1843), 
which was soon followed by a war with the Sikhs of the 
Pun-jab', who, after several severe conflicts, were obliged to 
yield to the skill and valor of the British. The conquest 
of these districts gave the British government control of 
the whole peninsula of Hin-dos-tan' (1849). 

109. The most important measure of Parliament was 
the Repeal of the Corn Laws, thus opening the country 
to the free importation of foreign grain (1846). The 
Eussians having seized upon the Dan ubian principalities, 
Wal-la'chi-a and Mol-da'vi-a, England formed an alliance 

108. When and to whom was Victoria married ? What account is given of the 
Afghan War ? Of the conquest of Scinde ? Of the Punjab ? Where is the Punjab ? 
(Ans. In the northwestern part of Hindostan.) 

109. What laws were repealed in 1846? What led to the war with Eussia? 
What battles were fought in the Crimea ? How and when was Sebastopol taken ? 
When did the war end ? 



1857.] EKGLAKD. 279 

with France, to protect Turkey from the encroachments 
of the Czar (1853). This led to the Crim'e-an War, during 
which the allied fleets blockaded the harbor of Se-bas'to- 
pol,* and, after a siege of eleven months, captured the city 
(1855). During this siege, were fought the celebrated battles 
of At ma, Bal-ak-la'va, and InJc'er->mann,\ in the second of 
which the " Six Hundred" made their famous charge. The 
fortifications defending the city were of immense extent 
and strength, and the French greatly distinguished them- 
selves by the vigor and gallantry of their assaults. The 
MalaTcoff' and Redan, two of the strongest works, were 
stormed by them, after the English troops had failed in the 
attempt. Peace was signed with Eussia in 1856. 

110. The next year (1857) is remarkable for the Indian 
Mutiny,, occasioned by the introduction of Enfield rifles, 
for which greased cartridges were used. The native soldiers 
being forbidden by their religion to taste animal food, re- 
belled, because in loading the rifles it was necessary to bite 
off the ends of the cartridges. After the outbreak of the 
rebellion in Mee'rut,% the Sepoys (native troops) seized Delhi 
(del'le), which was besieged for more than two months by 
the British, and only taken after the most desperate fight- 
ing (Sept. 20, 1857). 

111. Cawn'pore and Luch'noiv% were the scene of other 
insurrections. At the former place the English were mas- 
sacred with frightful atrocity by the Sepoys, under Nena 
Sahib (sah'eeb), who was afterward defeated by General 
Havelock and Sir Colin Campbell. These two officers 
showed the greatest courage and skill in their operations 

* Sebastopol, a strongly fortified seaport in the Crimea— a peninsula in the southern part of 
Russia. 

t Alma is a small river in the Crimea; Balaklava, a town on the Black Sea, southwest from 
Sebastopol; Inkermann, a seaport near Balaklava. 

t Meerut is situated about 35 miles northeast from Delhi, a noted city of Hindostan, on th 
Jumna, an affluent of the Ganges. 

§ Cawnpore and Lucknow are important towns in Hindoostan, the former on the Ganges, th 
latter on a tributary to it. They are some distance east of Delhi. 



110. What led to the Indian mutiny ? How and when did it begin ? 

111. What other events occurred ? What generals distinguished themselves 1 
When did the rebellion end ? What atrocities were perpetrated ? 



280 EKGLAKD. [1868. 

against the rebellion, which was finally crushed in 1859. 
The dreadful outrages on men, women, and children, per- 
petrated during this war by the native troops, and the hor- 
rible punishments afterward inflicted upon the latter by 
the British, scarcely find a parallel in history. 

112. Meanwhile, wars had been waged with the Chinese. 
Thejirst was caused by the seizure of opium imported into 
China, contrary to her laws, by British merchants. At the 
close of this war China was compelled to cede Hong Kong* 
to Great Britain, and open five seaports to British com- 
merce, besides paying $21,000,000 as indemnity for the 
expenses of the war (1842). In 1857, hostilities were re- 
sumed ; and, Canton having been stormed and some of the 
forts near Pekin taken, the Chinese submitted to the de- 
mands of the English, one of which was that a British 
minister should be allowed to reside at Pe'kin (1860). 

113. The other most interesting events of this reign are, 
the death of Prince Albert, in 1861 ; the layitfg of the 
Atlantic Cable, in 1866; the passage of the Second Reform 
Bill, in 1867, by which bill the elective franchise was great- 
ly extended by diminishing the property qualifications of 
voters for members of parliament ; and the expedition to 
Abyssinia, in which King Theodore was defeated (1868). 
The liberality of the queen in all measures of reform, her 
ready acquiescence in the will of her people, when definitely 
ascertained and legitimately expressed, and her social and 
domestic virtues, have won for her the esteem and affection 
of all classes of her subjects, who, in the words of Macaulay, 
" have found in her a wiser, gentler, happier Elizabeth." 

114. The progress made in science and the useful arts 
during this reign has been beyond precedent. The coun- 

* Hong Kong is an island at the mouth of the estuary which leads to Canton, in the south- 
eastern part of China. 

112. What led to wars with China ? What were their results ? 

113. What other interesting events occurred during this reign? What is said 
of Queen Victoria ? 

114. Describe the progress made in science and the useful arts. What inven- 
tions have been made ? 



ENGLAND. 281 



try has been crossed in every direction by railroads of the 
very best construction ; ocean steam-vessels have revolu- 
tionized commerce and navigation; the electric telegraph 
has brought every part of the kingdom into instant com- 
munication with all other parts of the civilized world; 
while the building of iron-clad war-steamers has rendered 
obsolete all former achievements in naval architecture, and 
changed entirely the character of maritime warfare. 

115. The steam printing-press has greatly facilitated the 
spread of intelligence, aud increased the number of jour- 
nals and periodicals of all kinds circulated among the 
people. The literature of the period is enriched by the 
productions of Ten'ny-son, the poet-laureate ; Thack'e-ray, 
Dickens, and Bul'iver, among novelists; and Ma-cau'lay, 
Carlyle, Buckle, Be Quincey, and many others, historians, 
essayists, etc., who, in every department of prose and 
poetry, have shed lustre upon the language and literature 
of their country. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 
A. d. 

1485. Henry VII. First of the Tudors. Reign of 24 years. 
1509. Henry VIII. Reign of 38 years. 
1513. Battle of the Spurs. Battle of Flodden Field. 
1534. Separation of the English Church from that of Rome. 
1547. Edward VI. Reign of 6 years. 
1553. Mary. Reign of 5 years. 
1558. Elizabeth. Reign of 44 years. 
1579. Completion of a voyage round the world by Sir Francis Drake. 

1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 

1588. Destruction of the " Invincible Armada." 
1601. Execution of the Earl of Essex. 

1603. James I. First of the Stuarts. Reign of 22 years. 

1605. Gunpowder plot. 

1611. Translation of the Bible. 

115. What has been the effect of the application of steam to printing ? Men 
tion some of the most prominent writers of the period. 



282 ENGLAND. 



1618. Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded. 
1625. Charles I. Reign of 24 years. 
1628. Petition of Right granted. 
1638. The Covenant signed by the Scots. 

1641. Execution of the Earl of Strafford. 

1642. Commencement of the Civil War. Battle of Edgehill. 

1643. Battle of Newbury. Death of Lord Falkland. 

1644. Battle of Marston Moor. Defeat of the Royalists. 

1645. Battle of Naseby. The royalists defeated by Cromwell. 

1649. Execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth declared. 

1650. The Scottish Covenanters defeated at Dunbar by Cromwell. 

1651. Battle of Worcester. Charles II. defeated by Cromwell. 
" Navigation Act passed. 

1653. The Long Parliament dispersed. 

" Cromwell made " Protector." 
1658. Death of Oliver Cromwell. Richard Cromwell Protector. 
1660. Charles II. restored. Reign of 25 years. 
1665. Defeat of the Dutch by James, Duke of York. 

" Great Plague in England. 
1680. Supposed Popish plot. Earl of Stafford executed. 
1683. Execution of Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney. 
1685. James II. Reign of 4 years. 

1689. William III. and Mary. Reign of 13 years. 
" " Revolution of 1688" (Jan. 1688-89). 

1690. Battle of the Boyne. James II. defeated. 
1697. Treaty of Ryswick. 

1702. Anne. Reign of 12 years. 

1704. Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and 

Prince Eugene. 
1706. Battle of Ramillies. The French defeated by Marlborough. 
1708. Victories of Marlborough at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 

1713. Treaty of Utrecht. 

1714. George I. Reign of 13 years. 
1727. George II. Reign of 33 years. 

1743. Battle of Dettingen. The French defeated by George II. 

1745. Marsbal Saxe victorious at Fontenoy. 

1746. Battle of Culloden. 

1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1759. Capture of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe. 

1760. George III. Reign of 60 years. 

1783. The Independence of the American colonies acknowledged by 
Great Britain. 



ENGLAND. 283 



1788. Trial of Warren Hastings, lasting till 1795. 
1798. The French fleet defeated by Nelson in the Battle of the Nile. 
1801. Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland. 
1805. Battle of Trafalgar. Death of Lord Nelson. 
1809. Battle of Corimna. Death of Sir John Moore. 
" Battle of Talavera. 

1814. Treaty of Ghent. Peace declared with the United States. 

1815. Battle of Waterloo. Victory of Wellington over Napoleon. 
1820. George IV. Beign of 10 years. 

1827. Battle of Navarino. Independence of Greece declared. 

1830. William IV. Eeign of 7 years. 

1834. Slavery abolished in all the British colonies. 

1837. Victoria. 

1841. Afghan War. Cabul taken and dismantled. Chinese War. 

1843 Conquest of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier. 

1846. Corn Laws repealed. 

1853. Commencement of the Crimean War. 

1855. Sebastopol taken by the forces of Great Britain and France. 

1857. Indian Mutiny. Delhi taken. Chinese War. 

1861. Death of Prince Albert. 

1867. Second Reform Bill passed. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. Give an account of Henry "VTL and his reign 183-184-232-233-234 

2. How many wives did Henry Vm. have ? Give their names 234-236-237 

3. Give the history of his contest with Pope Clement H 235-236 

4. State all you can in relation to Cardinal Wolsey. , 234-235-236 

5. Give an account of Edward YT. and his reign 238 

6. Who was Queen Mary ? and give the events of her reign 238-239 

7. Who was Queen Elizabeth, and how long did she reign ? 238-239-244 

8. Name the most important events in the early part of her reign 239-240 

9. What important voyages were made during her reign ? 241 

10. Give the particulars in relation to the great Armada 241-242 

11. State all you can in relation to Mary, Queen of Scots 242-243 

12. Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to the Earl of Essex 244 

13. What authors of note lived during the time of Queen Elizabeth ? 244 

14. Give the history of James I. to the time of his becoming king of England. 245 

15. Give what you can of the history of Sir Walter Raleigh 241-245 

16. Give a full account of the Gunpowder Plot 245-246 

17. Name the important acts of the reign of James I 245-246-247 

18. What was the length of the reign of James I. ? 245-247 

19. What troubles did Charles I. have with his first Parliament ? 247 

20. Give an account of Buckingham and his acts 246-247-248 

21. Of the difficulties between Charles I. and his fourth Parliament 248 



284 ENGLAND. 



22. Of the Earl of Strafford and his fate 248-249 

23. Of the difficulties which led to the civil war 249-250 

24. Of the principal events in that war 251-252 

25. Of the closing acts of Charles I., his fate, and character 252-253 

26. Of events during the rule of Oliver Cromwell 254-255-256 

27. Of the Covenant and Covenanters 249-251-254 

28. Of Kichard Cromwell and his administration 257 

29. Of the Puritans 240-241-246-249-250-251-258 

30. What event is known in English history as the Restoration ? 257 

31. Name the principal events in the reign of Charles II 257—262 

32. Give an account of the war with the Dutch 258-259 

33. Of the next war with the Dutch, in which France joined . 260 

34. Of the Triple Alliance, its objects and consequences 259-260 

35. Of the Test Act, its object and consequences 260-261 

36. Of the Habeas Corpus Act, its design and consequences ; 261 

37. Of the Eye-House Plot, its cause, object, and result 261 

38. What noted authors lived during that period ? 262 

39. By whom was Charles H. succeeded on the throne ? 261 

40. Give the history of James H. previous to his accession 259-260 

41. Give a sketch of his reign and subsequent career 262—265 

42. By whom was James succeeded on the throne ? 263-264 

43. How was the succession made and the king's power restricted ? 263-264 

44. Give a sketch of the reign of William and Mary 264-265 

45. What was the Grand Alliance of 1701, its origin and object ? 265 

46. Name the principal events of Queen Anne's reign 265-266-267 

47. Narrate the facts in relation to the Duke of Marlborough 265-266-268 

48. What authors of note lived during the reign of Queen Anne ? 267 

49. Give the history of Scotland to that period 171-172-173-174-242-245-267 

50. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded on the throne ? 267 

51. Give an account of George's struggle to retain his crown 267 

52. Name the principal acts in the reign of George H 268-269-270-271 

53. Give the facts relating to the " War of the Austrian Succession" 269-270 

54. The facts relating to the contest for territory in America 270 

55. Those relating to the famous Seven Years' War. 270-271-272 

56. Those relating to the War of the American Eevolution 271-272 

57. Eelating to the war which ended in the peace of Amiens 273 

58. Give the history of Ireland to 1801 165-244-254-274 

59. Give an account of the ''Peninsular War" 274 

60. Of the struggle ending in the battle of Waterloo 275 

61. What authors of note lived during the reign of George IE. ? 275-276 

62. Give the principal events in the reign of George IV 276-277 

63. Give those in the reign of William IV 277 

64. Mention those in the reign of Victoria 277-278-279-280-281 

65. What noted authors lived during Victoria's reign ? 281 

66. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the time 

of Henry IV. to the time of Cromwell 281-282 

67. From the time of Cromwell to the reign of George 1 282 

68. From that of George I. through Victoria's reign 282-283 

69. Who were the three kings of England named George ? 267-268-271-276 

70. Who were the four, named William ? 160-161-265-277 

71. The six, named Edward ? 170-172-173-181-183-238 

72. The eight, named Henry ? 162-163-169-179-180-232-234 



1483.] FHANCE. 285 



section ii. 

Fkance, 
From the Accession of Charles VIII. (1483) to the present Time. 

1. Charles VIII., the son and successor of Louis XL, 
was only thirteen years of age when he commenced to 
reign. He was, moreover, feeble both in body and mind, 
and yery ignorant. A dispute arising as to who should 
have the guardianship of the young king, the question 
was referred to the States- General, a meeting of that body 
being called for the purpose (1484). This assembly of the 
States is noted for the ineffectual attempt made by the 
Third Estate (i. e., the Commons) to obtain a redress of 
grievances, and to acquire some influence in the government. 
Charles, by his marriage with Anne, Duchess of Brittany, 
acquired possession of that country; and thus was de- 
stroyed the last stronghold of feudal independence and 
rebellion. 

2. By this marriage, Charles gave offence to Maximilian 
of Austria, to whom Anne had been previously betrothed ; 
and that monarch was joined by Henry VII. of England 
and Ferdinand of Spain in a league against Charles ; but 
the latter succeeded, by means of concessions of territory 
and the payment of large sums of money, in effecting a 
peaceful accommodation (1493). The next year he invaded 
Italy with a large army to recover Naples, then in posses- 
sion of Alfonso II., a prince of Aragon, who, on the ap- 
proach of Charles, abdicated the throne, and the French 

1. What is said of Charles V3H. ? Why were the States-General called ? For 
what is this meeting noted ? How did Charles acquire Brittany ? 

2. To what hostilities did this marriage lead ? How were they settled ? Give 
an account of the invasion of Italy and its result. What was the conduct of Charles 
after this ? When and how did his death occur ? What line ended with him ? 



286 FRANCE. [1498. 

monarch entered the city in triumph. A league being 
formed against him by "Venice, Milan, and other states of 
Northern Italy, he retreated ; but, on the confines of Lom- 
bardy, gained a brilliant victory oyer a much superior army 
of the allies, thus securing his retreat to France. Naples 
a short time afterward was abandoned by the French ; so 
that Charles, who had been desirous of winning the glory 
of Alexander or Charlemagne, had the mortification of 
seeing his expedition prove a total failure. He afterward 
gave himself up to every species of vicious indulgence, and 
thus ruined his health. His death, which happened soon 
after, was, however, the result of an accident (1498). 
Charles VIII. was the last of the family of Valois. 

3. Louis XII. — Charles VIII. dying without heirs, 
Louis, Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, with the 
title of Louis XII. He was the great-grandson of Charles 
V., and commenced his reign by the exercise of a noble 
forbearance and moderation which gained for him the 
esteem of all classes. Those who had opposed and injured 
him during the previous reign were freely forgiven, the 
king saying that " it did not become the King of France 
to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." Desiring 
to marry Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII., he 
applied to the Pope (Alexander VI.) for a divorce from his 
wife, who, though distinguished for her talents and virtue, 
was deformed in person. The divorce being granted, his 
marriage with Anne was solemnized with great splendor. 

4. Most of this reign was occupied by wars undertaken 
by Louis to acquire possession of territories in Italy. His 
first conquest was that of Milan (1500),. after which, in 
alliance with Ferdinand of Aragon, he took Naples; but a 
dispute arising between the allies as to the partition of 
the conquered territory, the French were defeated by the 



3. Who succeeded Charles VTII. ? What is said of the conduct of Louis XII. f 
How and why did he obtain a divorce from his wife ? 

4. What conquests did he make in Italy ? What disasters did he suffer ? 



1513.] * FKAJTCE. 287 

Spanish forces under Gon-zal'vo of Cordova, called the 
" Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- 
clusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis 
attempted to retrieve his loss ; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon 
the French one of the severest disasters that ever befell 
their arms (Dec, 1503). 

5. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated 
League of Gambray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, 
the Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, in 
order to check the power of Venice, then at the height of 
its glory and influence. Under the command of the illus- 
trious Chevalier Bay'ard, the French completely defeated 
the Venetians in the battle of Agnadello (an-yah-del'lo) ; 
and the other allies were also successful (1509). But the 
intrigues of Julius II. soon afterward diverted the force of 
the alliance from Venice and turned it against France, with 
the view to deprive the latter of all its possessions in Italy. 
In this way the " Holy League," consisting of the Pope, 
Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Eepublic, was formed 
(1511) ; but the French, under the command of the re- 
nowned Gaston de Foix (fwah), gained two brilliant vic- 
tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen 
in one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward 
obliged to succumb to the power of the League, and sur- 
render all his Italian acquisitions in Northern Italy. 

6. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover 
these possessions (1513), and, at first, gamed some suc- 
cesses ; but was finally defeated with severe loss by the 
Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for their defence. 
This disaster encouraged the enemies of France to attack 
it ; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand of Spain, the 
Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. landed 
with a large army at Calais. The latter a short time after- 
ward fought the noted " Battle of the Spurs," in which 

5. What was the League of Cambray? What was its result? What was the 
Hojy League ? What victory was gained by the French ? What followed ? 

6. What other disasters befell Louis in Italy and France ? When did he die ? 



288 FRANCE. ' [1515. 

several of the French officers, including Bayard, were taken 
prisoners (1513). Louis, wearied with these harassing wars, 
shortly afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace 
with his enemies, but survived it only a few months. His 
•virtues had made him exceedingly popular, and he died 
universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 

7. Francis I., Duke of Angouleme (ang-go-lam), and 
cousin of Louis XII., succeeded to the throne, at the age of 
21 years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, and 
was eager to distinguish himself by military achievements. 
His first enterprise was to recover Milan, which had been 
lost during the previous reign ; and, at the head of 40,000 
men, commanded by Bayard, the Constable Bour'bon, and 
other illustrious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in the 
battle of Marignano (mali-reen-yah'no), he totally defeated 
the Swiss mercenaries, 10,000 of whom were left dead upon 
the field (1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered ; and Francis 
wisely augmented his influence by establishing a lasting 
alliance with the Swiss Eepublic (1516). 

8. On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, 
Francis became a competitor with Charles, of Spain, for the 
vacant throne. The election of the latter excited the anger 
of Francis, and gave rise to a series of wars that lasted 
nearly twenty-five years, between him and his great rival, 
afterward so illustrious as Charles V. of Germany. Both 
parties sought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England ; and, 
on the occasion of the interview which took place between 
the English and French monarchs, fetes of such extraordi- 
nary splendor were given, that the place of the interview 
was called the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, how- 
ever, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor 
of the Emperor. 

9. Francis unwisely quarrelled with his great general, 

7. Who succeeded Louis XH. ? What was his character? What led to the 
battle of Marignano ? What were its consequences ? 

8. What led to wars with Charles V. of Germany? What course was pursued 
by Henry VTil. ? How was this brought about ? 



1529.] FKAKCE. 289 

the Constable of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken 
into the service of the emperor. The first step of the 
French king was to invade Italy ; but his army was under 
the command of an incompetent general, and Bourbon 
soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during which the 
gallant and chivalrous Bayard was killed. Francis then 
conducted the army in person ; but, at Pa' via, suffered a 
dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished generals being 
slain, and he himself made prisoner (1525). 

10. He remained in captivity more than a year, during 
which he suffered considerable indignity from the emperor, 
who extorted from him an assent to the most humiliating 
conditions before he would grant his release. These, on 
regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfil ; and the war was 
renewed, Francis having effected an alliance with Venice 
and the Pope. Bourbon accordingly marched to Eome. 
with a large army, consisting partly of German troops, 
whose minds had been excited by the new doctrines of 
Luther, and partly also composed of a multitude of ad- 
venturers and bandits, ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. 

11. Bourbon was slain in the first assault ; but Rome was 
taken, and for seven months became a scene of the most 
remorseless violence and pillage, the Pope being kept a 
prisoner, and treated with the grossest indignities (1527). 
This led to an alliance between the kings of France and 
England ; and Charles, embarrassed by the movements of 
the German Protestants, and threatened by the Turks 
under their great sultan, Soliman the Magnificent, con- 
sented to a treaty of peace with Francis (1529). 

12. Twice, however, was the war renewed ; and Francis 
degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an 
alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1544, he wiped out 



9. With whom did Francis quarrel ? What led to the battle of Pavia ? What 
was its result? Where is Pavia '? (See Prog. Map, No 7.) 

1 How did Francis obtain his release ? What led to the taking of Rome ? 

11. Give an account of the sack of Eome ? To what did it lead ? 

12. What were the subsequent events of this reign ? When did it end ? 

13 



290 FKANCE. [1547. 

the disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid victory in 
Italy over the Imperial army ; but Charles formed an alli- 
ance with Henry VIII., both monarchs engaging to invade 
France, capture Paris, and divide the French dominions 
between them. The French king successfully defended his 
capital against the invading armies of these two powerful 
foes, and finally succeeded in making peace with both. 
His death occurred the next year (1547). 

13. Francis I. was a liberal patron of literature and the 
arts, both of which" made very great progress during his 
reign . He was possessed of considerable talents, unbounded 
ambition, and very extraordinary courage, activity, and en- 
terprise ; but his private vices, his acquiescence in the ir fiu- 
ence of incapable favorites, and his want of prudence and 
self-control, brought upon his people great misfortunes and 
miseries. 

14. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, was in 
the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothful and 
luxurious in his disposition, and possessed but few of the 
talents of his father. Before he commenced to reign, he 
married Catharine de' Medici (med'e-clie), a descendant 
of the illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, of the Florentine 
Kepublic, who, on account of his accomplishments and 
his liberal patronage of learning and art, was atyled the 
" Magnificent." Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and 
Clement VII. a nephew ; and when, through the influence 
of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her liberty, a 
member of this celebrated family was made the first Duke 
of Florence (1529) ; and its descendants, for a century 
afterward, continued to occupy the ducal throne of Tus- 
cany. 

15. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were ro- 



1 3. What was the character of Francis I. ? 

14. What is said of Henry II. ? Whom did he marry? Whc was Catharine 
de 1 Medici ? 

15. What war was continued ? What led to the treaty of Passui ? What were 
its terms ? What victory was gained by Francis, Duke of Guise 1 



1559.] FKAKCE. 291 

sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; 
and the latter allied himself, with the great Protestant 
champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at once de- 
clared against the emperor as the enemy of the civil and 
religious liberty of Germany. Charles V., prudently yield- 
ing to the force of so powerful a combination, concluded 
with the Germans the treaty of Passau, conceding to the 
Protestants freedom of worship (1552). Henry II., how- 
ever, haying refused to be included in the treaty, the imperial 
army was repulsed with severe loss at Metz, defended by 
the French under Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez). 

16. Charles V. having resigned his throne to his son 
Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade 
the Netherlands and Italy ; but sustained severe disasters 
in each of these enterprises. In the former, the Constable 
Montmorency sustained a total defeat at St. Quen'tin, where 
the flower of his army were either slain or taken prisoners 
(1557). Queen Mary of England had given assistance to 
her husband Philip ; and, through the energy of Guise, the 
French gained possession of Calais (1558). This was soon 
followed by a treaty of peace between the contending par- 
ties, and by the king's death, which was occasioned by a 
wound received at a tournament (1559). 

17. Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to 
the throne. The year before, he married Mary, Queen 
of Scots; and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely 
ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was under the 
control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother, 
Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus acquired 
the supreme power in the government ; which they pro- 
ceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, or 
Huguenots, the persecution of whom had commenced in 
the previous reign. The Huguenots had, nevertheless, 

1 6. What countries did Henry III. invade ? What were the results ? Why did 
the French take Calais ? When and how did Henry's death occur ? 

17. Who succeeded Henry II. ? What was his character ? Who was his queen ? 
Who obtained the control of the government ? What is said of the Protestants ? 



292 FKANCE. [1560. 

rapidly increased in number and influence, and now 
included within their ranks the King of Navarre, his 
brother Louis, Prince of Conde (kon'da), Admiral Co- 
ligny (Jco-leen-ye'), with many others of high rank and 
great ability. 

18. On account of the tyrannical administration of the 
Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Conde; which 
proving unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the oppor- 
tunity of executing a dreadful vengeance on those who had 
been concerned in it, . executing upward of 1200 persons 
with the most revolting cruelty (1560). This was soon 
followed by the arrest of the King of Navarre and the 
Prince of Conde, the latter of whom was convicted of high 
treason and sentenced to be executed ; but the king's death 
taking place soon afterward, he was released. The reign 
of Francis II. lasted less than eighteen months; and he 
was succeeded by his brother Charles, a youth ten years 
and a half old (1560). 

19. Charles IX. — The government was now adminis- 
tered by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had 
previously selected for her chief friend and adviser the 
moderate and virtuous Chancellor de VHopital (lo'2Je-tal) ; 
and the leaders of both religious parties were placed in the 
great offices of state. The States-General were assembled, 
and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, which was after- 
ward confirmed by a royal edict. These excellent measures, 
however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the excesses 
and bitter feelings of both parties ; and the country was 
soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 

20. The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command 
of the Protestants, who were assisted by the English Queen 
Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of 



18. What conspiracy was formed? What was its result? Who succeeded 
Francis II. ? 

19. Who administered the government under Charles IX.? What measures 
were adopted ? With what results ? 

20. Give an account of the war that ensued. How did it end ? 



1572.] FKAKCE. 293 

Spain. This war was carried on with great fury, and with 
various successes on both sides, till 1570, when Catharine 
obtained peace by granting to the Huguenots the free ex- 
ercise of their religion in all parts of Prance, except Paris, 
placing in their power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of 
which was Roohelle (ro-shel'). While this arrangement 
gave great dissatisfaction to the Catholic party, it did not 
restore confidence to the Protestants, who entertained a 
mistrust of the sincerity of Catharine, by whose counsels 
and intrigues the king was entirely controlled. 

21. Admiral Coligny and the other Protestant leaders 
finally repaired to the court ; and the former gained so 
much influence over Charles, that the Queen-mother en- 
tered into a conspiracy to remove him by assassination, 
and thus arouse the vengeance of the Huguenots, so that a 
pretext might be found for their destruction. Coligny 
was, however, but slightly wounded, and the plot failed. 
Catharine and her accomplices next wrung from the king 
his consent to the death of Coligny and the other principal 
members of the Protestant faction. The dreadful " Massa- 
cre of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which the 
Huguenots throughout France were butchered, without 
distinction of age or sex. Coligny was the first victim, and 
the number of those that fell in Paris is estimated at 
10,000; the whole number slaughtered in different parts 
of the kingdom amounting to 30,000 (August 24, 1572). 

22. The Huguenots were not, however, destroyed. They 
successfully repelled the attacks made on their stronghold, 
Eochelle, and succeeded in obtaining very favorable, terms of 
peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died 
(1574), having suffered on his death-bed the most poignant 
remorse for the crimes and atrocities which had been perpe- 
trated with his sanction. His imbecility has, however, 

21. What led to the Massacre of " St. Bartholomew's Day?" Give an account 
of it. 

22. What was its effect on the Huguenots ? When did the king die ? What ia 
said of him ? 



294 PRANCE. [1589. 

saved his name from most of this guilt, resting, as it does, 
upon Catharine de' Medici, and her associates in the dark 
intrigues by means of which those acts of cruelty were 
committed. 

23. Henry III., brother of the late king, succeeded to 
the throne ; although, in the preceding year, he had been 
elected King of Poland. He was a weak and dissolute 
man, neglecting his duties to indulge in the most infa- 
mous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the leadership 
of Henry of Navarre, and the Prince of Conde, became 
very powerful ; and the king and Catharine were compelled 
to make the most humiliating concessions (1576). This 
led to the " Holy League," formed by the Catholic party to 
extirpate the Huguenots, overturn the government, and 
place one of the Guises on the throne. 

24. The contest that followed has been styled the " War 
of the Three Henries " — Henry, the king, Henry of Guise, 
and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced in 1587 ; and 
the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained some ad- 
vantages over their opponents. At last, disgusted and en- 
raged at finding himself at the mercy of the Guises, and 
being treated with considerable indignity by them, he 
"caused them to be assassinated. This crime excited a vio- 
lent outbreak of popular fury against the king, who, in 
order to resist the opposition which he had created, allied 
himself to Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots. A few 
months after this, he was assassinated by a Dominican 
Monk, named Clement, who was prompted to the deed by 
feelings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended the 
royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House 
of Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., King of Navarre, 
who now assumed the title of Henry IV. 



23. Who succeeded Charles IX.? What is said of him? What caused the 
Holy League ? 

24. What was the War of the Three Henries ? What is said of it ? What crime 
was committed by the king ? How did his death occur ? What line ended ? By 
whom was Henry HI. succeeded ? 



1598.] FKAKCE. 295 

House or Bouebois". 

25. Henry IV. was in his 36th year when he came to 
the throne, from which the Catholic nobles at first attempt- 
ed to exclude him, except on condition of his renounc- 
ing his religion, which he refused to do ; but he prom- 
ised to give security to the Catholics and their religion, 
and to abide the decision of a national Council. This not 
being satisfactory to the League, now commanded by the 
Duke of May-enne', brother of the late Duke of Guise, a 
war ensued, in which Henry defeated his enemies in the 
famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590) ; but the fruits of 
this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke of Mayenne 
entered Paris in triumph. 

26. The war was continued for some time with varied 
success, Henry being aided by the English troops under 
the Earl of Essex. At last, the States-General were called ; 
and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing party, and to secure a 
recognition of his right to the throne, abjured Protestant- 
ism and declared himself satisfied of the truth of the 
Catholic faith (1593). Though injurious to his personal 
reputation, this act of the king's delivered France from a 
condition of the most dreadful anarchy ; and, for patriotic 
reasons, it was approved by many of the Huguenots them- 
selves. On moral and religious grounds, it cannot, of 
course, be at all justified. 

27. The next five years were occupied in securing his 
possession of the throne, and in a war which was carried 
on with Philip of Spain. This was closed by a treaty in 
1598, a year memorable for the grant by the king of the 
celebrated Edict of Nantes (nantz), in which he con- 
firmed the rights and privileges of the Huguenots, conferred 

25. What course was pursued by Henry and the Catholic nobles ? What led to 
the battle of Ivry? What was its result ? Where is Ivry? (See Map, p. 188.) 

26. What were the other events of the war? What course did Henry pursue 
with respect to his religion ? What is said of it ? 

27. What were the chief events of the next five years ? What was the Edict of 
Nantes ? Where is Nantes ? (See Map, p. 188.) 



296 FRANCE. [1610. 

upon them entire liberty of conscience, and admitted them 
to all offices of honor and emolument. 

28. He next directed his attention to the internal condi- 
tion of the kingdom, which, on account of the long con- 
tinuance of ciyil war, had become entirely disorganized. 
By the construction of roads and canals, he brought all 
parts of the country into ready communication, encouraged 
traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth 
and intelligence to the people. Manufactures, mining, and 
every other department of industry were fostered by his 
beneficent measures, in devising which he was greatly aided 
by the wise and upright Diike of Sul'ly. The latter 
reorganized the finances; and, although many of the 
taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely 
liquidated. 

29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a 
project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form 
them into an association, so as more completely to secure 
the balance of power, and to diminish the influence of 
the imperial house of Austria. A dispute having arisen be- 
tween the emperor and some of the Protestant princes of 
Germany, Henry took sides with the latter, and thus gave 
great offence to his Catholic subjects. He was on the 
point of setting out to commence the war, when he was 
assassinated (1610) in the streets of Paris by a half-insane 
fanatic, named Ravaillac (rah-val-yah'). The death of the 
king, who was the idol of the people, occasioned the utmost 
grief and indignation ; and his murderer was put to death 
with every refinement of torture. Henry was possessed of 
great abilities and force of character ; and, as a monarch, 
was deserving of very high praise ; but his private life was 
sullied with very great vices and immoralities. 

30. Louis XIII. succeeded his father at the age of nine 

28. What wise measures were adopted "by the king? Who was his minister ? 

29. What scheme was planned by Henry' IV. ? How did he offend his Catholic 
subjects ? How was his death caused 9 What was his character ? 



1628.] FRANCE. 297 

years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici, 
Sully, the great minister of Henry IV., becoming disgusted 
with the injudicious measures of the regent, and particularly 
with her attention to Italian favorites, resigned his offices, 
and went into retirement. An assembly of the States- 
General, in 1614, is noted for the first great occasion on 
which the celebrated Eichelieu (reesW e-lu) made display of 
his extraordinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 
1622 ; and, two years afterward, he became the chief adviser 
of the king. 

31. Eichelieu's first object was to subdue the Huguenots, 
who for some time had been in rebellion against the gov- 
ernment. Eochelle, their chief city, was besieged; and, 
although Charles I. of England sent a considerable force to 
its assistance, it was - compelled, after a vigorous defence of 
fifteen months, to surrender (1628). Eichelieu himself 
took a very active part in this siege. The other towns in the 
possession of the Huguenots were shortly after obliged to 
submit; and the cause of Protestantism in Erance was en- 
tirely prostrated. 

32. Eichelieu's next object was to humble the power of 
the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part 
in the "Thirty Years' War," on the side of the Protestants 
(then commanded by the great Swedish monarch Gustavus 
Adolplius), against Spain and the Empire. After the death 
of that hero at Lut'zen, the Erench suffered some reverses, 
the imperialists invading France, devastating the country, 
and penetrating within three days' march of the capital. 
The persevering energy of Eichelieu, however, finally 
triumphed over all his enemies; and the Erench armies 
made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 

33. The vigor of Eichelieu's government excited much 



30. Who succeeded Henry TV. ? Who became Regent? What is said of the 
States-General ? To what offices was Richelieu promoted ? 

31. Give an account of the war waged by Richelieu agaiust the Huguenots. 
Where is Rochelle ? (See Map, p. 188.) 

32. What was the next object of Richelieu ? How did he carry it out ? 



298 FKANCE. [1642. 

opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France, 
and many conspiracies were formed to destroy him. All 
these schemes he was enabled to thwart by his consum- 
mate vigilance and address, and several of those who had 
engaged in them he caused to be executed. The most con- 
spicuous among his enemies were Mary de? Medici, the 
queen-mother ; Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the brother of the 
king ; and the Duke of Montmorency. The last was exe- 
cuted, having been taken prisoner in a conflict with the 
government forces. 

34. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Eichelieu sustained 
the influence of France, and made its power respected by 
every foreign state. In no period of its history, has its 
glory shone forth with more splendor than during the ad- 
ministration of this talented and ambitious cardinal, be- 
neath whose comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy 
the king himself became a mere cipher. Eichelieu was also 
a patron of science and literature ; and to him France owes 
the foundation of the French Academy. His death occurred 
in 1642, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 

35. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his 
father died ; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, 
Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardi- 
nal Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Eichelieu. 
France was again drawn into the " Thirty Years' War," by 
the renewal of hostilities on the part of the house of Aus- 
tria; but several splendid victories were gained by the 
French army, under the Prince of Conde, afterward so 
illustrious as the "Great Conde," and by the celebrated 
Marshal Tu-renne'. This long war was closed by the 
" Treaty of Westphalia," in 1648, by which the boundaries 
of France were settled, nearly as they exist at present. 

33. What conspiracies were formed against him ? With what results ? 

34. What is said of the administration of Eichelieu? What did he found? 
When did his death occur ? When did the king die? 

35. By whom was Louis XLTI. succeeded ? What is said of Louis XIV. ? Who 
became Regent ? What minister did she choose ? In what war was France in- 
volved ? With what result ? What is said of the Peace of Westphalia ? 



1661.] FRANCE. 299 

36. Meantime, the civil war of the Fronde* had broken 
out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, repre- 
sented in the parliament of Paris, to the unjust and op- 
pressive measures of taxation adopted by the government, 
and probably incited by the rebellion of the English against 
their king, Charles I., which had just been brought to a 
successful issue. In these commotions, the court was op- 
posed by many of the nobles ; and, during the latter part 
of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against the 
government. The principal leader of the revolt, however, 
was Cardinal de Retz {rats). With much difficulty it was 
subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 

3T. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- 
mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis 
XIV., from whom, on account of his neglected education, 
little had been expected, suddenly assumed the reins of 
government. He at once exhibited great sagacity and tal- 
ent as a ruler ; and daring his subsequent reign, which 
lasted more than half a century, the vastness of his mili- 
tary enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal 
improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court cere- 
monial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and 
the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the 
" Great King." His government was, however, a com- 
plete despotism, its fundamental principle being compre- 
hended in his famous saying, " I am the state." 

38. The prosperity of France was, at this time, greatly 
promoted by the wise financial measures of Colbert {Jcol- 
bdre'), and by the able administration of foreign affairs, con- 
ducted by the prime minister Louvois {loo-vioali'). The first 

* The members of the political faction opposed to the government were called, in derision 
Fiondeur.s, that is, Slingers; being compared to the vagrant boys (.gamins) of Paris who fought 
with slings (fronde). 



36. What caused the war of the Fronde? Give an account of it. Why called 
the Fronde ? (See note.) 

37. W T hen did Mazzarin's death occur? What is said of the conduct and char- 
acter of Louis XIV. ? 

3 8 . By whom was the prosperity of France promoted ? What caused the Triple 
Alliance ? The war with the Dutch ? Where is Franche Comte ? (See Map, p. 188.) 



300 ' FEAKCE. [1681. 

military enterprise of Louis was the seizure of Flanders and 
Franclie Comte (fransh hong' to) ; but the " Triple Alliance" 
(England, Holland, and Sweden) arrested his career of con- 
quest (1668). This excited the anger of Louis against Hol- 
land; and, having bribed Charles II. of England to aid 
him, and obtained promises of neutrality from the other 
great powers of Europe, he directed his armies, commanded 
by Turenne and Conde, against that republic. 

39. At first, the affairs of the Dutch appeared to be des- 
perate, as they were weakened by the dissensious between 
the adherents of William of Orange and the democratic 
party under De Witt. The latter haying been overthrown 
by a popular insurrection, William, Prince of Orange, then 
a young man in his 23d year, became stadtholder (presi- 
dent) of the republic. Through his genius and patriot- 
ism the country was successfully defended, the progress of 
the enemy being at first arrested by opening the vast 
sluices, and laying the whole district surrounding Amster- 
dam under water (1672). 

40. This war lasted six years longer, the Prince of Orange 
having succeeded in forming an alliance with the Emperor 
of Germany. The French fleets gained important victories 
in the Mediterranean over those of Holland under De 
Ruyter, who was slain in one of these battles. Peace was 
made, in 1678, between France and Holland. The former 
gained nothing of importance by this severe war ; but Louis 
had lost his great general Turenne ; and Conde, enfeebled 
by age, had fought his last campaign. The free city of 
Stras'burg was captured by the French a short time after- 
ward (1681) ; and, through the engineering skill of the 
celebrated Vauban (vo-bahng 1 ), it was made an impregnable 
bulwark of France on the eastern frontier. 



39. What weakened the Dutch? Who hecame stadtholder? What measures 
did he adopt ? 

40. What other events of the war are mentioned? What were its results? 
When and how was Strasburg taken ? Where is Strasbnrg ? (See Progressive 
Map, No. 7.) 



1713.] FBAKCE. 301 

41. By the advice of the celebrated Madame de Main'- 
te-non {-nong), Louis adopted the impolitic measure of re- 
voking the Edict of Nantes (1685) ; after which a fierce 
persecution of the Huguenots ensued, which drove upward 
of 500,000 of the most industrious of the citizens of France 
from their country. The flight of James II. from England 
involved the French monarch in another war, in which he 
had to cope with the combined forces of the " Grand Al- 
liance," consisting of all the great powers of Europe (1689). 
For over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained 
by sea and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, 
Louis was compelled to assent to the Treaty of Kyswick, 
and thus submit to humiliating conditions of peace (1689). 

42. A few years afterward, followed the great " War of 
the Spanish Succession" (1701). On the death of Charles 
II. of Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for 
his grandson Philip V., whilst the emperor supported the 
claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles VI. This 
led to an alliance between Holland and Germany against 
the French king ; which was joined by William of Orange, 
Louis having recognized the son of James II. king of Eng- 
land. The war was carried on in Spain, Belgium, Germany, 
and Italy; and the French experienced a series of disas- 
trous defeats, having to contend against the genius of Marl T 
borough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht closed 
the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some of 
his American possessions to England, but obtained the re- 
cognition of Philip V. as King of Spain. 

43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, 
through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic 
monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty mien and 
pompous state ceremonial to the last, notwithstanding he 

41. What impolitic act did Louis XIV. commit? What was the result ? Give 
an account of the Grand Alliance and the events that followed it. 

42. Give an account of the war of the Spanish Succession. What was its result ? 

43. What was now the condition of Finance? What is said of Louis XIV. ? 
When did his death occur ? Who succeeded him ? What writings did he leave 1 
What is the period of his reign called ? 



302 FRANCE. [1715. 

had lost by death, his son, the Dauphin, his eldest grand- 
son, and many others of his kindred. He died in 1715, 
after a reign of more than 72 years, and was succeeded by 
Louis, his great-grandson. Louis XIV. left several volumes 
of writings, containing his " Instructions to his Sons," and 
his letters, which give valuable information respecting the 
events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augus- 
tan age of French literature. 

44. Louis XV". was only five years of age on his acces- 
sion, and the Eegeney-fell into the hands of the dissolute 
Duke of Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and 
unprincipled minister, the infamous Abbe Dubois (du- 
bivah'). The education of the young king was intrusted 
to the Abbe de Fleu'ry, noted for his virtues and accom- 
plishments, and for his work on the History of the Church. 
Cardinal Fleury succeeded him in 1722. During the re- 
gency occurred the famous " Mississippi Scheme," devised 
by a Scotch adventurer named John Law, who proposed to 
issue paper money on the security of certain gold and dia- 
mond mines said to exist near the Mississippi Eiver, in 
Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the vast debt of 
the country. Such was the rage for speculation excited by 
this project, that the shares sold for forty times their par 
value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this scheme, 
as in England by the " South Sea Bubble." 

45. Cardinal Fleury was made prime minister in 1726, 
in the 72d year of his age; and the country greatly pros- 
pered under his prudent and skilful administration, which 
lasted seventeen years. His policy was peaceful ; but the 
marriage of Louis XV. with the daughter of the dethroned 
King of Poland, involved him in a war with Russia, Austria, 
and Denmark, to reinstate his father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on 

44. What was the age of Louis XV. ? Who became Regent and minister ? Who 
were the instructors of the king ? Give an account of the Mississippi scheme. 

45. When did Cardinal Fleury become minister? What is said of his adminis- 
tration ? What caused war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark ? What was its 
result? What war followed? What victory was gained ? What treaty ended the 
war ? What followed ? 



1774.] FRANCE. 303 

the throne ; but in this object he was unsuccessful. The 
"War of the Austrian Succession" followed soon after, 
during which Fleury died (1743). The most important 
victory gained by the French during this war was that of 
Fontenoy, under Marshal Saxe (1745). The Treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle gaye a brief rest to Europe, which was broken 
by the "Seven Years' War" in 1756. 

46. During this struggle France lost Canada, and some 
of her West Indian possessions ; and her army was severely 
defeated at Min'den, by the English and Hanoverians, 
commanded by the Duke of Brunswick (1759). The Treaty 
of Paris deprived France of many important possessions, 
and left her heavily laden with taxes (1763). The year 
1769 is remarkable for the conquest of Corsica, after a brave 
struggle for its independence, under Paoli. During the 
same year was born on this island, Napoleon Bonaparte, 
destined to play so great a part in the subsequent history 
of France. Louis XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long 
course of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless profusion, dis- 
gusted his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy 
and ruin. 

47. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of 
20 years. His character presented a striking contrast to that 
of the preceding king, being beneficent and upright ; and 
he commenced his reign with the sincere desire to amelio- 
rate the condition of his suffering people, by redressing 
their grievances, and restoring the financial prosperity of 
the kingdom. He was, however, deficient in judgment 
and decision ; and, although he selected for his ministers 
the patriotic Turgot (toor-go') and Malsherbes {mal-zarV), 
he soon became involved in great difficulties on account of 
the irreparable confusion of the finances. These were still 



46. What did France lose during the Seven Years' War? What took place at 
Minden ? What was lost by the Treaty of Paris ? For what is the year 1769 noted ? 
When did Louis XV. die ? What was the effect of his reign ? 

47. Who succeeded to the throne? At what age? What was his character? 
What minister did he select ? What caused difficulties ? Who was the queen ? 



304 FKAHCE. [1789, 

further deranged by the extravagant habits of the Court, 
presided over by the young and fascinating queen, Marie 
Antoinette (an-twah-net'), daughter of Maria Theresa. 

48. Various ministers of well-established reputation for 
financial skill were selected, — among them the celebrated 
Neck'er, a banker of Geneva ; but the national difficulties 
increased. A war with England, caused by the interference 
of France in the struggle of the English colonies of America 
for independence, still further embarrassed the government 
of Louis XVI., by compelling a new levy of taxes, greatly 
to the discontent of the people, who complained loudly of 
the extravagance of the Court and Marie Antoinette. At 
length an assembly of the States- General was vehemently 
demanded, a meeting of which had not been called since 
1614. To this Louis gave his assent (1789). 

49. By the advice of Necker 3 it had been decreed that 
the representatives of the Third Estate, or Commons, 
should be equal in number to those of the nobility and 
clergy together ; and, on their assemblage at Ver-sailles' 
(May 5, 1789), a dispute arose as to the mode in which the 
votes should be taken in deciding questions, — whether the 
three Orders should vote as separate bodies, or, all being 
assembled in one body, the votes should be taken numeri- 
cally. The latter mode was advocated by the Third Es- 
tate ; and, after contending for several weeks, against the 
opposition of the two other orders, they finally resolved 
themselves into a distinct body, under the title of the Na- 
tional Assembly, and claimed to be the legitimate rep- 
resentatives of the French people (June 17). They were 
soon joined by many of the clergy. 

50. Thus was inaugurated the great French Revolu- 
tion, which in its progress not only convulsed France, but 

48. What financial ministers were selected? What increased the troubles? 
What measure was finally resolved on ? 

49. How had the number of representatives been arranged? What disputes 
arose ? What was the course of the Third Estate ? By whom were they joined ? 

50. What did these proceedings inaugurate? What causes led to the Revo- 
lution ? 



1789.] FEANCE. 305 

threw the whole civilized world into yiolent commotion, 
uprooting institutions which had withstood the assaults of 
ages. For this mighty outbreak many circumstances had 
prepared the way, the chief of which were the following : 
1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the gov- 
ernment of France during the three preceding reigns ; 2. 
The oppressions to which the lower classes were subjected 
from the unjust laws which favored the nobility and cler- 
gy, by exempting them from their due share in the weight 
of taxation ; 3. The dissemination of knowledge among 
the people, and the spread of infidelity, occasioned by the 
writings of Vol-taire', and others ; 4 The notions and feel- 
ings in favor of popular freedom inspired by the success 
of the American Eevolution, in which so many of the 
French nation had borne a distinguished part. 

51. The king and his ministers, dismayed at the deter- 
mination shown by the Commons, and desiring to check 
their proceedings, attempted to exclude them from their 
hall, and thus suspend their sittings. But the Assembly, 
through the energy of their president Bail'ly (or bahl-ye'), 
and the eloquence of their great leader Mirabeau {me-rali- 
do') 9 thwarted this attempt ; and the king showed his in- 
decision by afterward sanctioning their measures, and re- 
questing all the deputies of the clergy and nobility to join 
with the Third Estate. 

52. By the advice of the queen, large bodies of troops 
were collected to overawe the Assembly, and Necker was 
dismissed. This excited an insurrection of the populace 
in Paris, and the Bastile (bas-teel'), a noted prison, was 
stormed and captured by the mob (July 14, 1789). The 
excited populace then proceeded to Versailles, and de- 
manded that the king and royal family should return to 
Paris ; and Louis felt himself obliged to comply. Lafay- 



5 1 . What course did the king take ? The Assembly ? 

52. What led to an insurrection ? What acts did the populace commit * Who 
was made commandant of the National Guard ? With whom did it sympathize ? 



306 FKAKCE. [1T91. 

ette (lah-fd-et') was then placed at the head of the mili- 
tia, called the National Guard, the members of which 
sympathized with the popular movements, so that the king 
was without any support except from the Swiss and Ger- 
man mercenaries. 

53. The violence of the Parisian mob, inflamed by the 
political writings which were circulated among the people, 
soon became ungovernable ; and several obnoxious individu- 
als were seized and put to death with great cruelty. The 
Assembly energetically prosecuted its measures of reform, 
and decreed the entire abolition of the principles and prac- 
tices of the former government. They subsequently 
agreed upon a constitution, limiting the power of the king 
and securing popular rights ; and then passed a resolution 
by which the National Assembly (now called the Constitu- 
ent Assembly) was dissolved, and a new body authorized to 
be summoned, entitled the Legislative Assembly, to which 
none of the members of the National Assembly were eli- 
gible (1791). 

54. Meanwhile, several insurrections had taken place in 
Paris ; and the king and his family had been treated with 
the greatest indignity by the infuriated mob, whose pas- 
sions were particularly excited against the unfortunate 
queen. Attempting flight, they were pursued, arrested, and 
brought back to Paris. The Legislative Assembly met in 
1791 ; and, although the king had accepted the constitu- 
tion and promised to abide by its requirements, a large 
party were hostile to the monarchy, desiring to destroy it, 
and establish a republican form of government. These 
views were fostered by the political clubs which had been 
formed in Paris a short time after the commencement of 
the Eevolution, among which the famous Jac'obin Club 
had attained the complete control of the Assembly. 

53. What was the conduct of the Parisian mob? Of the National Assembly ? 
What body succeeded it ? 

n-i. What had taken place in Paris ? Against whom were the populace excited J 
Who desired a republic ? By whom were these sentiments fostered i 



1792.] 



PKA^CE. 307 

55. The king repeatedly made concessions to the repub- 
licans, while he cherished schemes for escaping from their 
control ; but each month added to his humiliations and to 
the boldness of his enemies. Foreign nations looked on with 
alarm, and sympathized with the royal family. Austria and 
Prussia declared war upon the French, in order to rescue 
the hapless monarch. This still further excited the Pa- 
risian mob. They rushed to the Tuileries (tweel're), the 
palace in which the king resided, took it by storm, massa- 
cred the brave Swiss soldiers who defended it, and obliged 
the king to take refuge in the Assembly, by whose orders 
he and his family were imprisoned (August 10, 1792). 

56. The supreme authority being now seized by the mu- 
nicipality of Paris, a special criminal tribunal was insti- 
tuted ; and all persons suspected of hostility to the revolu- 
tion were dragged before it, condemned, and massacred in 
the most shocking manner. Lafayette being at the head of 
the army, refused to recognize the authority of the Assem- 
bly, but, he not being sustained by the troops, retired from 
the country. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved ; and 
having been reorganized as the National Convention, 
it formally abolished the monarchy, and declared France a 
republic (September 1792). The next month, the revolu- 
tionists were emboldened by the victory gained by the 
French General Dumourier (du-moo-re-a') over the Aus- 
trian army at Jemeppe (zha-mep'), in Belgium. 

57. The Convention, now composed of strict republicans, 
was divided into two parties, bitterly hostile to each other, 
one called the Mountain Party and the other the Girond- 
ists (zhe-rond'ists). Of the former, the leaders were Ro- 



ns. What was done by the king? Who declared war upon France ? To what 

*5 6 X What followed the imprisonment of the king ? What succeeded the Legis- 
lative Assembly ? What measures were taken by the National Convention ? What 
emboldened the revolutionists ? ..,.,„ ™x. ^ , a * 

57 Into what parties was the Convention divided? Who were the leaders of 
the Mountain Party? What distinguished orator belonged to the Girondists? 
Give an account of the trial of the king. When did the execution take place ? 
What nobleman voted against the king ? 



308 FRANCE. [1793. 

bespierre (ro-bes-pe-are'), Dan'ton, and Marat {mah-rah'), 
noted for their wickedness and cruelty. One of the most 
eminent of the Girondists was Vergniaud (varn-yo'), dis- 
tinguished for his eloquence. One of the first acts of the 
Convention was the trial of the king, who was charged with 
conspiring against the liberties of France; and, notwith- 
standing the eloquent and unanswerable defence made by 
his advocate, Deseze (duh-saz'), he was found guilty of the 
charges, with very few dissenting votes, and condemned to 
death. The sentence was executed by the guillotine, one 
week afterward (January 21, 1793). Among those who 
voted for the king's condemnation was the infamous Duke 
of Orleans, who took part in the popular excesses, abandon- 
ing his title and taking the name of Philip E-gaTi-te {equal- 
ity). 

58. The Mountain Party having triumphed in the Con- 
vention, the Girondist leaders were guillotined. The 
Reign of Terror was then inaugurated, during which 
the Eevolutionary Tribunal, controlled by Eobespierre, 
Danton, and others, caused thousands to be seized and 
hurried to the guillotine. Among these victims was the un- 
fortunate Marie Antoinette (Oct. 1793), who, during her 
imprisonment, had been subjected to every indignity and 
insult which could be devised by her relentless jailers. 
Similar deeds of cruelty were perpetrated" in other parts of 
France, the number guillotined being estimated at more 
than 18,000. 

59. The cruel and wicked men concerned in these atroci- 
ties almost invariably met with a violent death. Marat 
was assassinated by Charlotte Cor'day. The faction of 
Eobespierre, triumphing over that of Danton, caused him 
and his adherents to be guillotined; and a few months 

58. What was the fate of Marat? What party triumphed in the Convention ? 
What followed ? What was the fate of Marie Antoinette ? What occurred in 
other parts of France ? 

59. What closed the Reign of Terror ? What change took place in the govern- 
ment ? What Drought Napoleon Bonaparte into notice ? 



1796.] FKANCE. 309 

afterward, this dreadful period closed by the execution of 
Robespierre himself (1794). A new constitution was then 
adopted by the Convention, the executive authority being 
intrusted to a Directory, consisting of five members. This 
constitution being opposed by several of the Parisian Sec- 
tions (divisions of the city), who threatened an insurrec- 
tion, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young officer, who had pre- 
viously distinguished himself at the siege of Tou-lon', was 
selected to conduct the military operations against the in- 
surgents. Planting his cannon adroitly, he opened fire 
upon the populace, and dispersed them without difficulty 
(1795). 

60. The service rendered by Napoleon on the " Day of 
the Sections," was soon afterward rewarded by conferring 
upon him the command of the Army of Italy, designed to 
operate against the Austrians (1796). In two campaigns 
he achieved a succession of the most brilliant victories over 
the Austrian armies ; and, entering the Venetian territory, 
in consequence of hostilities committed against the French, 
he captured "Venice itself, and overturned her ancient gov- 
ernment (1797). The emperor was at length compelled to 
assent to the terms of the treaty of Cam'po For'mi-o, by 
which an independent commonwealth was established in 
Northern Italy,-called .the " Cisalpine Republic," and the 
city of Venice was ceded to Austria. 

61. Bonaparte, after considerable persuasion, induced the 
Directory to consent to an expedition designed to conquer 
Egypt, as a means of attacking the commerce and power 
of England in the East. Landing there with an immense 
army, he captured Alexandria, and then marched toward 
Cairo (Jci'ro), which, after defeating the Mamelukes in the 
noted "Battle of the Pyramids," he entered (1798). This 
gave him possession of the country ; but a few days after- 



60. What command was bestowed on Napoleon ? Describe the campaigns in 
Italy. How did they end ? W T hat was the Cisalpine Republic ? 

61. What account is given of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt ? 



310 FRANCE. [1800. 

ward, Nelson destroyed his fleet, in the memorable " Battle 
of the Nile," and thns cnt off the retreat of the invaders. 

62. The Turkish empire having declared war against 
France, Bonaparte at once invaded Syria, captured Jaffa 
by assault, and cruelly caused 1200 Turkish prisoners to be 
put to death. He then laid siege to Acre {a' her), but failed 
to capture it; although he defeated the Turks with great 
slaughter at Mount Ta'bor. Eeturning to Egypt, he attacked 
and almost annihilated a considerable army of Turks at 
Aboukir (ab-oo-keer'),Ge7ieral Murat (mu-rah'), at the head 
of the French cavalry, particularly distinguishing himself 
in this obstinate battle (1799). Leaving his army with 
General Kleber (Ma-lar'), he then returned to France, and 
was received with unbounded enthusiasm by the people. 

63. Meanwhile, a new coalition of the great powers of 
Europe had been formed against France, and the Russians 
under Su-ioar'row had gained several important victories in 
Italy. This made the Directory very unpopular, and Bona- 
parte took the opportunity of overturning the government 
at the point of the bayonet. A new constitution was then 
formed, and accepted by the people, according to which the 
executive power was vested in three Consuls, elected for 
ten years. Bonaparte was appointed First Consul (1799), 
and by his vigor and address introduced reforms in every 
department of the government. 

64. The military operations were conducted with splen- 
did ability and success. The Austrians were defeated by 
General Moreau (mo-ro') in the battle of Ho-hen-Mn' 'den ; 
while Napoleon himself gained new laurels by his daring 
passage of the Alps, and by his brilliant victory over the 
Austrians at Ma-ren'go (1800). This compelled the empe- 



62. What account is given of the Syrian expedition ? What victory was gained 
over the Turks ? Whom did Napoleon leave in Egypt ? 

63. What made the Directory unpopular ? How was a change in the govern 
merit effected ? What did Napoleon become ? 

64. What victory was gained by Moreau ? By Napoleon ? What treaties were 
then made ? To what office was Napoleon elected ? When and how was he made 
emperor ? 



1805.] FRANCE. 311 

ror to conclude the Treaty of Lune'ville (1801), which was 
followed by the Treaty of Amiens, in which peace was made 
with England (1802). Bonaparte was next elected Consul 
for life; and, various conspiracies being formed against 
him, he determined still further to augment his power, and 
caused himself to be declared by the Legislature Emperor 
of the French (1804). 

65. A short time after this, Mbreati was banished for 
being concerned in a conspiracy against the government, 
and eleven of the other conspirators were put to death. 
Napoleon received the crown of Erance from the hands of 
the Pope ; and subsequently caused himself to be crowned 
King of Italy, with the famous " iron crown" of the Lom- 
bards (1805). These assumptions of power led to another 
coalition against him, on the part of England, Austria, 
Eussia, Sweden, and Prussia; but Napoleon, with his ac- 
customed promptitude, marched against the Austrians, and 
succeeded in capturing a large army at Ulm (1805). This 
was soon followed by the decisive battle of Aus'ter-litz, in 
which the combined army of the Austrians and Eussians 
were routed with overwhelming loss. The emperors of 
France, Austria, and Eussia were present at this battle, 
and the conditions of peace were at once agreed upon. 
The treaty was afterward concluded at Presburg, Austria 
making great sacrifices of territory. 

66. Napoleon how took possession of Naples, and con- 
ferred the crown upon his brother Joseph. His brother 
Louis was made king of Holland ; and various principali- 
ties and duchies were bestowed upon his most eminent 
generals and ministers. He next formed a union of several 
states of Germany, which was styled the " Confederation 
of the Ehine," and placed under his own control. This 

65. Who was banished? What other crown did Napoleon obtain ? What co- 
alition was formed ? What victories were gained by Napoleon ? What is said of 
the battle of Austerlitz ? What treaty was then made ? 

66. What crowns were bestowed by Napoleon upon his relatives and others f 
What was the " Confederation of the Rhine ?" What title did the emperor of Ger 
many assume ? 



312 FRANCE. [1807. 

was practically a dissolution of the empire of Germany ; and 
the emperor, accordingly, assumed the title of Emperor of 
Austria, relinquishing that of " Emperor of Germany and 
King of the Romans," which he had hitherto possessed. 

67. These encroachments and usurpations led to a fourth 
coalition, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great 
Britain, and Sweden, against the Erench empire. The 
Prussian monarch raised an immense army of 150,000 men, 
and commenced hostilities ; but Napoleon, with wonderful 
skill and promptitude, attacked and utterly defeated the 
Prussians, in the sanguinary battle of Je'na (1806). So 
complete was the victory, that the kingdom of Prussia lay 
at the mercy of the victor, who a few weeks afterward en- 
tered Ber-lin' in triumph. There, he issued his celebrated 
decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, 
and forbidding all commercial intercourse, on the part of 
any nation, with Great Britain or her colonies. 

68. During the winter, he attacked the Russians at Eilau 
{flow) ; but his army was repulsed with tremendous 
slaughter (January, 1807). Six months later, with an army 
of 200,000 men, he gained a victory over the Russians at 
FriecVland ; and thus was enabled to dictate terms of peace 
to the Russian emperor Alexander, at Til' sit. Peace was 
also made with Prussia, on condition that she should give 
up the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, which 
Napoleon bestowed on his brother Jerome, with the title of 
King of Westphalia (1807). 

69. Napoleon's commercial restrictions, as declared in 
the Berlin decree (called the Continental System), were not 
obeyed by Portugal, into which country British merchan- 
dise was freely admitted, and thence transported into Spain. 
He therefore ordered General Junot to invade Portugal and 

67. What was the fourth coalition? Give an account of the battle of Jena? 
What were the consequences ? What decree was issued by Napoleon ? . 

68. What battles were fought with the Russians? To what treaty did the vic- 
tory of Friedland lead ? What was given io Jerome Bonaparte ? 

69. What country was invaded by the French ? Why ? What followed ? What 
measures did Napoleon adopt in regard to Spain ? 



1809.] FRANCE. 313 

take possession of Lisbon ; and the prince regent was com- 
pelled to seek refuge with the British fleet in the Tagus, 
whence he sailed to Brazil, and fixed the seat of his gov- 
ernment in that country. Portugal was then declared a 
province of the French empire. Napoleon next determined 
to take possession of Spain ; and, after compelling its law- 
ful king to resign the crown, he conferred it upon his 
brother, Joseph Bonaparte, whom he had transferred from 
the throne of Naples. The latter throne he conferred on 
Murat, who had married his sister (1808). 

70. The people of Portugal and Spain were aroused to 
insurrection by these arbitrary measures ; and the British 
government resolved to aid them in their efforts to expel 
the invaders. The " Peninsular War" followed, which lasted 
nearly five years, and in which Wellington gained those re- 
splendent victories which have already been referred to in 
the history of England. Meanwhile, hostilities were again 
resumed on the part of Austria, with armies which amount- 
ed, in the aggregate, to about 500,000 men. Napoleon, 
notwithstanding his inferior forces, defeated the Austrians, 
under the Archduke Charles, at Eck'muhl (1809), but was 
compelled to fall back from his position after the bloody 
battle of As pern. A week afterward, he gained a decisive 
victory at Wagram (ivah'gram) ; after which the Austrian 
emperor was obliged to submit to terms of peace dictated 
by the victor (1809). 

71. While these events were in progress, Napoleon deposed 
the Pope (Pius VII.), and caused him to be imprisoned in 
France, on account of his refusal to concur in the Conti- 
nental System, and to recognize Murat as king of Naples. 
Having divorced his faithful and virtuous wife Josephine, 
he next haughtily demanded the Austrian princess Maria 
Louisa in marriage ; and so thoroughly had the Emperor 

70. To what war did the seizure of Spain lead ? What hattles were fought by 
Napoleon with the Austrians ? What followed the victory at Wagram ? 

71. What were the next measures of Napoleon? What cities and territory 
were seized ? 

14 



314 FRANCE. [1812. 

Francis been subdued at Wagram, that he was compelled 
to giye his assent ; and the nuptials, accordingly, took place 
a short time afterward (1810). In order the more effectually 
to carry out his policy of commercial prohibition, he, in the 
same year, seized the Hanse towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and 
Lubec, and annexed the northern coast of Germany to the 
French empire. 

72. Difficulties haying arisen with Sweden and Eussia, 
in consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands 
in the carrying out of the Continental System, the latter 
determined to inyade Russia with an overwhelming force. 
Accordingly, in June, 1812, he set out with a splendidly 
equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Memen, 
and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital of 
the Russian empire. Arriving at Smo-lensfc', he captured 
the city after a tremendous conflict, which closed with the 
retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he 
fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- 
di'no (i like e) ; but, although 45,000 of the enemy were 
either killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, 
and gained no decisive victory. His own losses had been 
immense (September 7). 

73. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned 
it, and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the 
battle of Borodino. But the city had been set on fire by 
the Russians, and the French vainly attempted to stop the 
conflagration. Nine-tenths of the whole city became a 
prey to the flames. This disconcerted the plans of Napo- 
leon, who had designed to pass the winter at Moscow ; and 
as the Russians were menacing his communications with 
Smolensk, where his magazines and reserves had been left, 
he determined to retreat (October 19). 

74. But the dreadful Russian winter soon commenced, 

72. What led to the invasion of Eussia? When was it commenced? What 
battles were fought with the Kussians ? 

73. What city was entered by the French? What compelled Napoleon to 
retreat ? 



1813.] FRANCE. 315 

and the French soldiers perished by thousands, of cold and 
famine. To add to their sufferings, they were constantly 
harassed by the Eussian army, with which they had sev- 
eral severe conflicts before reaching the Ber-e-si'na River, 
where their passage was disputed by the Eussians in strong 
force. The loss of life was frightful. Multitudes fell by 
the sabres of the Eussians, but still larger numbers per- 
ished in the icy waters of the river ; so that only 20,000 
men remained to Napoleon of the splendid army with 
which he had set out. During these terrific scenes and 
conflicts, Marshal Ney (no) had won for himself the ap- 
pellation of the " Bravest of the Brave." 

75. After the dreadful passage of the Beresina, Napo- 
leon abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, 
where his arrival restored public confidence and courage ; 
and such were his extraordinary energy and the resources 
of the French nation, that, in the beginning of the next 
year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with an 
army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain 
Europe was once more allied against him ; but, on the fa- 
mous battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of 
the allies, and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. 
Two other battles were fought with indecisive results, after 
which he consented to an armistice. 

76. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with 
an immense army ; and they attacked the French at Dres- 
den, but were repulsed with severe loss. Moreau, fighting 
on the side of the allies, was here mortally wounded (Ju- 
ly 26). In October, the allies, with large re-enforcements, 
threatened Napoleon's communications, and compelled 
his retreat to Lelp'sic, where the greatest conflict of the 
war ensued, the allied army amounting to about 250,000 

7-4. Describe the retreat of the French. The passage of the Beresina. How 
many were left of Napoleon's grand army ? What was Marshal Ney called ? 

1 5 . What did Napoleon next do ? What army did he raise ? What battles were 
fought? 

76. Where were the French attacked? With what result? Give an account 
of the battle of Leipsic and its consequences. 



316 FRANCE. [1815 

■ 

men ; while that of Napoleon contained less than 150,000. 
This has been called the " Battle of the Nations." After a 
desperate struggle the French were compelled to retreat ; 
and Napoleon's great conquests were at once lost. 

77. Against the immense forces of the allies, Napoleon 
could now make no effectual resistance. Having defeated 
e^ery army sent to impede their progress, they at last pene- 
trated into France, and entered Paris (March 31, 1814). 
Napoleon, who had fled from the city, was obliged to abdi- 
cate the throne of France as well as of Italy, and to retire 
to the island of El'ba, of which he was to have the sover- 
eignty. Louis XVII. having died a prisoner in the Tem- 
ple, during the Eeign of Terror, his uncle was declared king, 
under the title of Louis XVIII. (May 3, 1814). 

78. The next year, while a Congress of the European 
powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the 
affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised by the 
escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing on the southern 
shore of France (at Cannes \kan\ ), he was at once re- 
ceived with enthusiasm by the troops ; and Marshal Ney, 
who had been sent to oppose his progress, having deserted 
to him, he once more entered Paris in triumph, and was 
greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 
1815). Louis XVIII. having fled, Napoleon found himself 
again on the throne of France ; and in less than two 
months, an army was organized of over 200,000 men, ex- 
clusive of the National Guards. 

79. Meantime, the allies had prepared for the impending 
conflict. Three vast armies were collected ; the first con- 
sisting of Austrians, under Prince Schwartz'en-berg ; the 
second, of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Welling- 
ton and Blu'cher (Moo' Jeer) ; and the third, of Eussians, 


77. What led to Napoleon's abdication? Where was he sent? Who was 
placed on the throne ? 

78. What Congress was held ? What was accomplished by Napoleon ? 

79. What armies were collected to oppose him? What battle was fought? 
What was the result ? To whom did Napoleon surrender ? 



1821.] FRANCE. 317 



under the Emperor Alexander. Operations commenced 
on the 15th of June; and, on the 18th, was fought the 
memorable battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the army under 
Wellington repulsed the Trench, and drove them into irre- 
trievable retreat and ruin. Napoleon fled to Paris; but 
finding that no further effort could be made to retrieve his 
ruined fortunes, he surrendered himself to the commander 
of a British vessel of war, and was carried to England. 

80. By agreement of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a 
captive to the little island of St. He-le'na, where he arrived 
in October, 1815, and where he continued to reside as a 
prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age of 52 years. 
Such was the termination of this extraordinary career of 
ambition and conquest— the most extraordinary in the 
world's annals. Erom the ranks of private life, and a con- 
dition of total obscurity, this wonderful man, by his genius 
and force of character, lifted himself above the greatest po- 
tentates on earth, to whom he gave laws as to his lowliest 
subjects. No one can read the details of his brilliant 
career without being dazzled by his achievements ; but, at 
the same time, all must be shocked at his entire indifference 
to human suffering. With the talents to have enabled 
him to confer the greatest blessings on his race, he chose 
to be its scourge, and sacrificed to his selfish schemes every 
principle of benevolence and rectitude. However mourn- 
ful, therefore, his fall may appear, it must be regarded as a 
just retribution for his crimes ; while it affords an impres- 
sive lesson on the vanity and instability of all human 
glory. In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from 
St. Helena to Paris, and there entombed with every possi- 
ble circumstance of splendor and solemnity. 

81. Louis XVIII.— Soon after the battle of Waterloo, 
Paris was entered by the allies, and th e greater part of the 

80 What disposition was made of him? When did he die? What is said of 

^iT^SZi^^e^ovt^j^Am^ Wnowere executed* WtoS 
were the chief events of the reign of Louis XVUL ? Who succeeded him ? 



318 FKANCE. [1830 

French territory was occupied by foreign armies. Louis 
XVIII. was restored, and Marshal Ney, who had deserted 
to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The same year Murat, 
having made a rash attempt to regain the throne of Na- 
ples, was seized and put to death. The measures of the 
restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy, had been 
so tyrannical that insurrections broke out in those coun- 
tries. In Spain, the army, under General O'Donnell, sup- 
ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdinand, the king, 
was obliged to submit. Louis XVIIL, by the persuasions 
of the allied sovereigns of Bussia, Austria, and Prussia, 
sent an army into Spain, to restore the supreme authority 
to Ferdinand ; and the constitutionalists having been de- 
feated, the liberal government was overturned (1823). 
Louis XVIIL died the next year (1824), and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Charles, Count of Artois (ar'twah). 

82. Charles X. — During this reign, the contests be- 
tween the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber 
of Deputies, as the legislature was called, became very vio- 
lent ; and Charles, taking sides with the former, adopted 
very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. The liberal 
party having secured a majority in the Chamber, the king 
caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of elec- 
tions, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- 
quence of these despotic measures, the people rose in insur- 
tion ; and, after a contest of " three days," dispersed the 
royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. Lafayette was 
then appointed general of the National Guards ; and the 
Chamber of Deputies, declaring the throne vacant, sum- 
moned Lou'is Phil'ippe (or loo'e fil-leep') to occupy it (1830). 
Charles took refuge in England. 

83. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke 
of Orleans, who, as Philip Egalite, had shared in the ex- 



82. Into what parties was the Chamber of Deputies divided ? Give an account 
of the Second Eevolution. What followed ? 

83. What is related of the career of Louis Philippe ? 



1848.] FRANCE. 319 

cesses of the Kevolution, and had become one of its many 
victims. The new king, since that dreadful period, had 
suffered every variety of fortune, being an exile from his 
native land, and in a condition of privation and distress 
travelling or sojourning in foreign countries. He had spent 
some years in the United States. Now, by a strange re- 
vulsion of fortune, he was called to ascend the throne of 
his native country, from which he had been previously 
banished. 

84. A charter of rights was agreed upon by the Chamber 
of Deputies, and accepted by the newly-elected king. His 
reign was, for several years, quite prosperous; and the 
country advanced in education, commerce, and internal 
improvements. Louis Philippe, however, was very odious 
to the extreme republicans, and several attempts were made 
upon his life. He afterward became generally unpopular, 
by his opposition to the reforms which were demanded 
in the government, as well as by his avarice and his selfish 
concern for the aggrandizement of his family. 

85. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- 
form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (Feb- 
ruary 22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, with 
whom the troops fraternized ; and Louis Philippe was com- 
pelled to flee. With much difficulty, he made his escape to 
England, where he died about two years afterward. On. 
of the most important events of this reign was the con- 
quest of Algeria (1847), after a long and sanguinary strug- 
gle on the part of the native tribes, under their leader 
AM-el Ka'der. 

86. After the flight of the king, a provisional govern- 
ment was instituted, consisting of seven members, among 
whom were La-mar-tine' and Ar'a-go, distinguished for 
their attainments in literature and science. France was 



84. What were the first events of his reign ? What made him odious to the re- 
publicans ? How did he become generally unpopular ? 
85 What caused the flight of Louis Philippe ? What conquest had been made ! 
8 6. What followed the flight of the king ? Who was elected president ? 



320 FKAN/CE. [1849. 

declared a republic, with the motto, " Liberty, Equality, and 
Fraternity ;" hereditary titles and distinctions of nobilit} 
were abolished, and a national assembly was called for the 
purpose of framing a constitution. The constitution after- 
ward adopted vested the government in a president, to be 
elected for four years, and a national assembly, to consist 
of 750 members. By the election which followed, Louis 
Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, first presi- 
dent of France (1848). 

87. Louis Napoleon is the nephew of the Great Napo- 
leon, being the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense Beau- 
liarnais {bo-ar-na'), daughter of the Empress Josephine. 
During the reign of Louis Philippe, he had become noted 
for two attempts to obtain possession of the government by 
endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. 
One of these was at Strasburg, in 1836 ; and the other at 
Boulogne (boo-lone'), in 1840. For the second he was con- 
demned to perpetual imprisonment, but succeeded in 
making his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises sub- 
jected him to considerable ridicule. 

88. In the first year of his presidency, a revolution broke 
out in Eome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta (gah-a'- 
tali). Louis Napoleon having sent an army under General 
Ouclinot (oo' de-no) to restore him to his government, the 
republicans under Gar-i-bal' di were entirely defeated, and 
Pius IX. returned to Eome the next year. Revolutions 
broke out in other parts of Italy, with similar want of suc- 
cess. 

89. Difficulties arising between the president and the 
Assembly, the former determined to overturn the existing 
form of government, so as to obtain an increase of power. 
His measures were devised and executed with great adroit- 
ness. Having gained over the military, he seized and im- 



87. Who is Louis Napoleon ? How had he made himself notorious ? 

88. What events took place in Italy during his presidency? 

89. What caused the overthrow of the government? 



1859.] FKANCE. 321 

prisoned such of the members of the Assembly as were 
hostile to his views, as well as other distinguished citizens 
from whom he apprehended opposition. He then sup- 
pressed the newspapers, and proclaimed a dissolution of the 
Assembly and Council of State (Dec, 1851). 

90. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis Napoleon 
was accepted by the people, and he was elected president 
for a term of ten years. A short time after this, he obtained 
the passage of a decree by the Senate, declaring him he- 
reditary Emperor ; and this decree was ratified by the popu- 
lar suffrages. Napoleon Bonaparte's son by Maria Louisa 
{Napoleon II. ) having died, Louis Napoleon assumed the 
title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of the most 
disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means of a 
dishonorable stratagem which has been dignified by the 
name of coup d'etat (koo-detah') — i. e. stroke of state policy. 

91. In 1854, the French united with the English in the 
Eussian War, and under Marshal Pelissier (pa-lis-se-a') 
acquired the glory of the final storming of the tremendous 
fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war having arisen be- 
tween Austria and Sardinia, the French emperor formed 
an alliance with the latter, and took the field in person in 
Northern Italy. Austria suffered disastrous defeats at Ma- 
gen' ta and Sol-fer-i'no ( i like e ), and by the treaty of Vil'- 
lafran'ca was obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. 
The most important event since that time is the interven- 
tion of the French emperor in the affairs of Mexico, by 
means of which the republican government was overturned, 
and the country placed under the imperial sway of Maxi- 
milian. 

92. The preservation of the Papal power in Italy from 
the attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates, 



90. In what way did Louis Napoleon become emperor of France? What title 
did he assume ? Why ? What is called the coup d'etat f 

91. What have been the chief events of Napoleon III.'s reign ? 

92. What else is remarked of his policy ? What progress has been made by 
France during his reign ? 

14* 



322 FKAHCE. 

presents a striking feature of the Emperor's policy, which 
in its general character has been strongly on the side of 
absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal principles 
and the establishment of democratic governments. Under 
his sway, France, though kept under severe restraint by 
the imperial power, has made great and rapid strides in 
every department of national well-being ; and her internal 
improvements and progress in commerce and manufac 
tures, are unsurpassed by those of any of the great nations 
of the civilized world. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

1483. Charles VIII. Reigned 15 years. 

1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans. Reigned 17 years. 

1508. League of Cambray. 

1515. Francis I. Reigned 32 years. 

1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis I. taken prisoner. 

1547. Henry II. Reigned 12 years. 

1559. Francis II. Reigned 17 months. Shortest reign in French 

history. 

1560. Charles IX. Reigned 14 years. 
1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. 
1574. Henry III. Reigned 15 years. 
1589 Henry IV. Reigned 21 years. 



FKANCE. 323 

1590. Battle of Ivry. 

1598. Edict of Nantes published by Henry IV. 
1610. Louis XIII. Reigned 33 years. 
1624. Richelieu made minister to the king. 
1628. Capitulation of Rochelle. 

1642. Death of Richelieu. 

1643. Louis XIV. Reigned 72 years. Longest reign on record. 
1661. Death of Cardinal Mazarin. 

1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
1715. Louis XV. Reigned 59 years. 
1759. Battle of Minden. 

1769. Conquest of Corsica. Birth of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
1774. Louis XVI. Reigned 19 years. 
1789. Commencement of the Great Revolution. 
" Bastile stormed. 

1793. Execution of Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette guillotined. 

1794. Fall of Robespierre. End of the Reign of Terror. 
1796. Napoleon in command of the Army of Italy. 

1798. Battle of the Pyramids. Cairo taken by the French. 

1799. Napoleon First Consul. 1800. Battle of Marengo. 

1804. Napoleon Emperor of the French. 

1805. Battle of Austerlitz. 

1806. Battle of Jena. 

1807. Battles of Eilau and Friedland. Peace of Westphalia. 

1809. Battles of Eckmuhl, Aspern, and Wagrani. 

1810. Divorce of Josephine, and marriage of Napoleon and Maria 

Louisa. 

1812. Invasion of Russia. Battles of Smolensk and Borodino. 

1813. Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic. 

1814. Paris taken by the allied armies. Abdication of Napoleon. 
" Louis XVIII. Reigned 10 years. 

1815. Battle of Waterloo. Final defeat of Napoleon. 
1821. Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena. 
1824. Charles X. Reigned 6 years. 

1830. Second French Revolution. Charles X. dethroned. 
" Louis Philippe. Reigned 18 years. 

1847. Conquest of Algeria. 

1848. Third French Revolution. Louis Philippe dethroned. 
" Louis Napoleon elected President. 

1851. Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon. 

1852. Louis Napoleon emperor, with the title of Napoleon III. 
1859. Battles of Magenta and Solferino. 



324 FRANCE. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

1. By whom was Louis XI. succeeded on the throne of France ? 2S5 

2. State what you can of Charles and the events of his reign 285-286 

3. By whom was Charles Vm. succeeded on the throne ? 2S6 

4. Name the most important events in the reign of Louis XII 2S6-287-2S8 

5. By whom was Louis XII. succeeded on the throne ? 288 

6. Name the important events of the reign of Francis 1 288-289-290 

7. Who was the successor of Francis I. and what was his character ? 290 

8. Name the important events occurring during the reign of Henry II 290-291 

9. Who was the successor of Henry H., and what was his character ? 290-291 

10. Name the principal events of the reign of Francis H 291-292 

11. By whom was Francis II. succeeded as king of France ? 292 

12. What were the principal events of the reign of Charles IX. ?. 292-293-294 

13. Give an account of the Huguenot struggle 292-293-294-295-296-297-248 

14. Who was Henry IH. of France, and what his character ? 294 

15. Name the important events of the reign of Henry HI 294 

16. Who was Henry IV. of France, and what was his character ?-. 294-296 

17. Name the principal events of the reign of Henry IV 295-296 

18. By whom was Henry IV. succeeded on the throne ? 296 

19. Give an account of Richelieu, his character, acts, and death 297-298 

20. Who was Louis XIV., and what was his character ? 298-299-301 

21. Name the important events of the reign of Louis XIV 298 — 302 

22. Who was Louis XV., and what was his character ? 302-303 

23. What were the principal events in his reign ? 302-303 

24. Who was Louis XVI., and what was his character ? 303 

25. Relate the events which led to the French Revolution 304 

26. State, in detail, the causes of the rehellion 305 

27. Relate the events to the time of the execution of the king 305-306-307-308 

28. Give an account of the Reign of Terror 308-309 

29. Of further events to the establishment of the Cisalpine Republic 309 

30. Of the two expeditions against Egypt 309-310 

31. Of further events till Bonaparte was declared emperor 310-311 

32. Of subsequent events to the fourth coalition 311-312 

33. Of further events to the beginning of the " Peninsular War" 312-313 

34." To the retirement of Bonaparte to the Island of Elba 313-314-315-316 

35. Of further events to the death of Bonaparte 316-317 

36. Who was Louis XVLTL, and what were the events of his reign ?.. . . 316-317-318 

37. Who was Charles X., and what were the events of his reign ? 318 

38. Who was Louis Philippe ? and give his early history 318-319 

39. Give an account of his reign, flight from France, and death 319 

40. What events followed the flight of Louis Philippe ?..... 319-320 

41. Who is Louis Napoleon ? and give his early history *. 320 

42. Describe the steps by which he became emperor of France 320-321 

- 43. Give the cause and particulars of the Russian War 278-279-321 

44. How many of the kings of France were named Louis ? 323 

45. State, as far as you can, who each one was 145—323 

46. How many of the kings of France were named Charles ? 323 

47. State, as far as you can, who each one was 144 — 323 

48. How many of the kings of France were named Henry ? 322 

49" State, as far as you can, who each one was 189-290-294-295 

50. Which of the kings of France were executed ? 142—323 



1535.] EUROPEAN STATES. 325 



section iii. 

European States. 

1. The history of the States of Southern and Central 
Europe, down to the latter part of the fifteenth century, 
has been giyen in connection with the history of the Middle 
Ages. The more northern states, having a later origin, 
have not as yet been treated of. A brief outline of the 
history of each of the European States is given in this 
section. 

GrERMANT, 
From tlie Accession of Maximilian. 

2. The reign of Maximilian (1493-1519) is noted for the 
commencement of the preaching of Martin Luther against 
the doctrines of the Church of Eome (1517). Charles V., 
who succeeded Maximilian, his grandfather, was one of the 
greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. He had 
become King of Spain by hereditary right, previous to his 
election as Emperor of Germany; and was, besides, ruler 
over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His contests 
with Francis I. of France have been already sketched. 

3. The other interesting events of his reign are his con- 
flicts with the Turks, his defeat of the pirate Bar-ba-ros'sa 
at Tunis (1535), and his repeated contests with the Prot- 
estants. This name was first given to the followers of 
Luther at Spire, on account of their protest against the 
decree passed by the representatives of the Catholic States 



1 . What portion of the history is contained in this section ? 

2. For what is the reign of Maximilian noted ? What is said of Charles V. ? 

3. What are the most interesting events of his reign ? What is the origin o* 
the name Protestants ? What is said of the " Confession of Augsburg? 1 ' Of the 
" League of Smalcalde ?" What was the effect of the latter ? Where is Augs- 
burg ? (Ans. In Germany — Map, No. 7.) How was protestantism secured ? What 
oocurred in 1556 ? 



326 EUKOPEAK STATES. [1629. 

(1529). At Augsburg they published their Confession of 
Faith, which was drawn up by Me-lanc'thon (1530), and 
signed by the Protestant princes. The latter, after the con- 
demnation of the " Confession of Augsburg " by the Diet, 
formed, for their defence, the famous "League of Smal' 
cal-de." This firm stand on the part of the supporters of 
the new doctrines compelled Charles to relax the severity 
of his measures against them. Protestantism was secured 
by the efforts of Maurice of Saxony, resulting in the treaty 
of Passau (1552). Charles V. abdicated the throne in 
1556, and was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand. 

4. The next important event in the history of Germany 
is the "Thirty Years' War," which commenced in 
1618, in Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king 
(Ferdinand) to extinguish Protestantism within his domin- 
ions. During the progress of this outbreak in Bohemia, 
Ferdinand was elected Emperor of Germany ; but the Bo- 
hemians chose Frederic, Elector-palatine, son-in-law of 
James I. of England. Frederic being defeated in the battle 
of Prague, was obliged to flee; and the Bohemians were 
punished without mercy (1620). This is considered the 
first period of the war. 

5. Frederic's general, Mans'feldt, held out for a time 
against the imperial generals Til'ly and Wal'len-stem ; and 
succeeded in gaining the assistance of Christian IV., king 
of Denmark. The latter was defeated by Tilly; and Wal- 
lenstein invaded and took possession of nearly the whole 
of Denmark. A defeat sustained by Wallenstein at Stral- 
sund* afterward compelled the emperor to grant peace to 
Christian IV., on condition of his deserting the Protestant 
cause (1629). This ended the second period of the war. 

6. The next year (1630), by the intrigues of Richelieu ; 



* Stralsund is a strongly fortified town of Prussia, on the Baltic Sea. 

4. What led to the Thirty Years' War? Give an account of the first period 
of it. 
o. Give an account of the second period. 



1648.] EUEOPEAH STATES. 327 

Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was dis- 
missed; and Gustavus AdolpJius, King of Sweden, was in- 
duced to enter the contest as the champion of the Prot- 
estant cause. "With a small, but finely disciplined army, he 
invaded Germany, and passed triumphantly through the 
country, having defeated Tilly in a great battle near Leip- 
sic (1631). Tilly being slain soon afterward, the emperor 
was obliged to recall Wallenstein, who by his skilful opera- 
tions soon retrieved the imperial cause. In 1632, occurred 
the memorable battle of Lutzen, in which the Protestants 
triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader Gustavus 
(1632). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused of trea- 
son, was assassinated by the command of the emperor 
(1634). This ended the third period of the war. 

7. Eichelieu now directly took part in the struggle on 
the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, 
Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany against his 
implacable foe, the House of Austria. During the remain- 
der of the war, the imperial cause declined, through the in- 
fluence of Eichelieu's masterly diplomacy and energetic 
military operations. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 
1637, and Eichelieu, in 1642 ; but the war lingered on six 
years longer. The peace of "Westphalia established the re- 
ligious independence of the Protestant states, made Hol- 
land and Switzerland free, increased the territories of 
France, and stripped the German empire of very much of 
its ancient power and splendor (1648). 

8. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658- 
1705) was principally occupied in wars with the Turks and 
with France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the heart 
of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, from which Le'o- 

6. What caused the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus ? Give an account of 
the third period of this war. 

7. What was the effect of Richelieu's intervention ? How did the war end ? 
What were the terms of the treaty of Westphalia ? When was it made ? 

8. With what was the reign of Leopold I. occupied? What was done by the 
Turks ? By whom were they defeated and expelled ? In what other wars was 
Germany involved ? What is said of Prince Eugene ? 



328 EUEOPEAN" STATES. [1745. 

pold was compelled to flee. Through the courage and ad- 
dress of the celebrated Polish king, John So'bi-es-ki, the city 
was relieved, and the Turks were obliged to retreat to their 
own dominions. Germany was involved in the wars caused 
by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. of France; and 
several brilliant victories were gained in her interest by 
her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as has been 
already stated, participated in the great battles fought 
during the War of the Spanish Succession, at Blenheim, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. . . 

9. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories 
over the Turks, of which the greatest were that of Zenta, 
in Hungary (1697) ; and that of Bel-grade' (1717), the lat- 
ter resulting in an immense loss to the Turks, including 
the city itself, over which, as being the key of Hungary, 
very many severe conflicts had taken place between the 
Austrian and Ottoman forces. Charles VI., who reigned 
from 1711 to 1740, was the last of the male line of the 
Hapsburgs ; and his death was followed by disputes which 
led to the famous War of the Austrian Succession. 

10. In this war, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, 
joined the enemies of Maria Theresa, in their attempt to 
deprive her of her dominions ; and the elector of Bavaria, 
assuming the imperial throne, under the title of Charles 
VII., and being assisted by France, advanced to Vienna, 
and compelled her to flee to Hungary. The Hungarians 
drew their swords enthusiastically in her favor, and Charles 
VII. was forced to retreat. The latter died in 1745 ; and 
Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband 
of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, under the title of 
Francis I. 

11. The reign of Francis I. was distinguished by the 

9. What victories over the Turks were gained by Prince Eugene? What is 
said of Belgrade ? What line ended with Charles VI. ? What war followed ? 

10. Give an account of the " War of the Austrian Succession." Who became 
emperor in 1745 ? 

11. For what was the reign of Francis I. distinguished? What caused the 
" Seven Years' War ?" 



1815.] EUBOPEAN STATES. 329 

great " Seven Years 9 War" which broke out eight years after 
the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain and 
France quarrelled about their colonial possessions in North 
America ; Austria was eager to regain the territories which 
Frederick of Prussia had conquered during the previous 
war; and the Empress of Russia was desirous of curbing 
the pride and ambition of the Prussian monarch. Poland 
and Sweden joined Russia; and thus Frederick, whose only 
ally was Great Britain, had to contend against five great 
states. 

12. The Prussian king was, however, the greatest general 
of his age ; and the many splendid victories which he 
gained with his small but highly-disciplined army, illus- 
tiate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the 
genius of a military commander can triumph over superior 
numbers. This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 
1763. 

13. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred 
the great wars with Napoleon, the result of which was, that 
the Empire was dissolved in 1806, after an existence of 
more than a thousand years. Most of the states were 
formed into the " Confederation of the Rhine ;" and Austria 
became an hereditary empire, over which Francis continued 
to rule until his death in 1835. 

14. After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the 
Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved ; and, in 1815, 
the Congress of Vienna formed the " Germanic Confedera- 
tion," consisting of 39 states, of which the central assem- 
bly, or Diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Mayne 
(mi?ie). Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much 
disturbed by the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia 
for supremacy in the affairs of the Confederacy. During 
the revolutionary period of 1848-9, the King of Prussia, 

1 2. What was accomplished by Frederick the Great ? 

1 3. What distinguished the reign of Francis II. ? What took place in 1806 ? 

1 4. What change occurred in the constitution of Germany in 1814 and 1815 ? 
How was the quiet of Germany disturbed ? What occurred in 1849 ? 



330 EUROPEAN" STATES. [1849 

whose policy had been to give greater unity to Germany, 
obtained, by a vote of half the states, the title of Emperor 
of the Germans ; but to this the other states would not 
consent. 

15. The " Six Weeks' War" of 1866 gave to Prussia that 
leading control in Germany for which she had so long con- 
tended. In June of that year, war was declared against 
Austria by Prussia and Italy ; by the latter, to obtain pos- 
session of the Venetian territories. The Italians were de- 
feated ; but the Prussians, under the command of their king 
( William I.), invaded Bohemia, and in the battle ofSad'o-wa, 
defeated with great loss the Austrians, under Marshal 
Benedek. By the treaty which soon followed, Austria was 
excluded from the Germanic Confederation ; and Prussia, 
after incorporating with her own dominions some of the 
states, formed of those north of the Mayne, including her- 
self, the North German Confederation, the diet of which 
meets at Berlin. The states further south, of which Bava- 
ria, Wurtemberg, and Baden are the chief, are entirely 
independent. 

16. Austria. — Austria, after its organization as a sepa- 
rate empire in 1806, continued to be involved in the great 
conflict with Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disas- 
ters. The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless ; and 
the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit to the humilia- 
tion of accepting the victorious Oorsican as his son-in-law 
(1810). Since the settlement of affairs by the Congress of 
Vienna, the most noted events in the history of the Austrian 
empire have been the unsuccessful revolt of Hungary, in 
which Kossuth (kos-shoof) took so distinguished a part 
(1849), and the wars waged with Prussia and Italy. The 
result of the latter has been to deprive Austria of all her 
dominions in Northern Italy, and to exclude her from all 
participation in the affairs of Germany. 

1 5. Give an account of the " Six Weeks' War." What was its result ? 

1 6. Give a sketch of the history of Austria since 1806. 



1701.] eukopeak states. 331 

Prussia. 

17. Prussia derives its name from the Bo-rus'si, a fierce 
and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on 
the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first part of 
the eleventh century they were partially subdued by Bo- 
les' las, king of Poland ; but, for more than two centuries, 
they resisted every effort made to convert them to Chris- 
tianity. This was finally established among them by means 
of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights of 
the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The 
country remained under the government of the Knights 
for about two centuries, when it became partly dependent 
upon the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 

18. The Duchy of Bran' den-burg, a part of these Prus- 
sian territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present 
kingdom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick Wil- 
liam, styled the Great Elector. From Poland he obtained 
a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prussia, which 
had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He partic- 
ularly distinguished himself for his successful wars against 
the Swedes, whom, in 1679, he entirely expelled from the 
country. He was also noted for his strenuous efforts in 
the cause of the Protestants ; for which he received letters 
of congratulation and thanks from Oliver Cromwell. When 
the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of 
the exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of 
the Great Elector. 

19. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last Elector, 

* The order of Teutonic Knights was founded during the Crusades. Their first seat was at 
Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem, they removed to the banks of the 
Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sovereignty, which had the control of nearly 
three millions of people. 



1 1 7. What is the origin of the name Prussia ? Give an account of the Borussi. 
How was Christianity established ? Who were the Teutonic Knights ? {See note.) 
Into whose control did the country pass, and when ? 

18. What was the nucleus of the kingdom of Prussia? Who was called the 
Great Elector ? What is related of him ? 

19. How and when did Prussia become a kingdom ? What is said of Frederics 
William I. ? 



332 EUKOPEAK STATES. [1814. 

Frederick III., having been acknowledged king by the em- 
peror of Germany, on condition that he should aid the 
cause of Austria in the War of the Spanish Succession. 
His troops gained great distinction by their valor in the 
battle of Blenheim. He was succeeded by Frederick Wil- 
liam L, in 1713, noted for his harsh and eccentric charac- 
ter, his fondness for tall soldiers, and his savage treatment 
of his son, who succeeded him as Frederick the Great (1740). 

20. Under the latter, Prussia became one of the greatest 
military powers in Europe, partly through the magnificent 
army which had been collected by Frederick William L, 
and disciplined to the highest degree of efficiency. The 
achievements of Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' 
War, have already been referred to. The details of this 
remarkable struggle present one of the most interesting 
chapters in history. In 1772, the Prussian territories were 
greatly enlarged by the first partition of Poland. Fred- 
erick gave considerable attention to the internal improve- 
ment of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manufac- 
tures, and commerce. He was passionately fond of litera- 
ture, was an intimate friend and associate of Voltaire, and 
acquired himself some distinction as an author. He died 
in 1786, at the age of 75. 

21. The wars with Napoleon occurred during the reign 
of Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the 
terrible overthrow of Jena (1806), but redeemed her honor 
through the achievements of Bluclier {bloo'ker), to whose 
skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories of Leip- 
sic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred of 
Napoleon and the French was intense ; and, had he not 
been overruled by the other generals, Paris, in 1814, would 
have been given up to be pillaged by the soldiers. 



20. What is said of the reign of Frederick the Great? Of the "Seven Years' 
War ?" How was Prussia enlarged in 1772 ? What is said of Frederick ? When 
did he die ? 

2 1 . During whose reign did the wars with Napoleon occur ? How was her de 
feat at Jena retrieved ? What is related of Blucher ? 



1861.] EUKOPEAtf STATES. 333 

22. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territories 
were much enlarged ; and during the subsequent part of 
the reign of Frederick William, the condition of Prussia 
was greatly improved. The commercial league among 
the states, called the Zoll-ver-ein' , has yery considerably 
facilitated trade ; and the establishment of common schools 
of a high order of excellence, has done much to enlighten 
the people and augment the real strength of the kingdom. 
Frederick William III. was succeeded in 1840 by his son, 
Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. During the 
reign of his successor, William I, the changes in the Prus- 
sian dominions occurred, which have been explained in 
connection with the history of Germany. These monarchs 
have ruled with despotic power, steadily resisting all efforts 
on the part of the people to obtain a liberal representative 
government. 

Poland. 

23. Poland was erected into a kingdom, and became an 
extensive and powerful monarchy, during the Middle Ages. 
In the latter part of the fourteenth century occurred its 
first union with Lith-u-a'ni-a, a large district extending to 
the Me 'men and Dnie'per rivers. Soon after this, successful 
wars were waged with the Teutonic Knights, which re- 
sulted in uniting the Prussian provinces with Poland 
(1462). During the reign of Sigismund I. (1506-1548), a 
war was carried on with the Eussians, who thus acquired 
Smolensk. Through the wise and beneficent measures of 
this sovereign, Poland was much improved, and reached a 
very high degree of greatness and splendor. 

24. In the next reign (Sigismund II.), occurred the final 
union of Poland and Lithuania (1569) ; and the Protestant 

22. What other events are mentioned in the reign of Frederick William III. ? 
Who succeeded him ? What occurred in the reign of William I. ? How did these 
kings reign ? 

23. Give a sketch of the early history of Poland. By whom was the kingdom 
much improved ? 

24. When was Protestantism introduced ? Who was the first elected mon- 
arch? 



334 EUROPEAN STATES. [1793. 

doctrines took a firm hold of the higher classes. At the 
close of this reign (1572), the monarchy was made elective; 
and the first king chosen was Henry of Valois, afterward 
Henry III. of France. This change in the constitution of 
the kingdom was very injurious to its interests, since it 
fomented faction and gave rise to repeated civil wars. 

25. The next century was chiefly occupied in wars with 
the two great northern powers, Sweden and Eussia. Dur- 
ing the reign of John Cas'i-mer (1648-68), a Swedish army 
overran Poland, took War'saw and Cra'cow, and com- 
pelled the king to flee. The Poles, however, made a vigor- 
ous effort to preserve their independence, and, having ex- 
pelled the Swedes, restored their sovereign to his throne. 

26. The reign of John Sodieshi is one of the most brilliant 
in Polish history. He was a great warrior, and saved his 
country from the Cossacks and the Turks. His defeat of 
the latter near Vienna, in 1683, has already been referred 
to. The constant dissensions and turbulence of the Polish 
nobles, however, frustrated all his efforts to improve and 
strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the way for its 
final dismemberment and ruin. The last king of Poland 
was Stanislas Augustus, during whose reign occurred the 
first partition (1772), by which Austria, Eussia, and Prus- 
sia divided most of its dominions among themselves, leav- 
ing to the Polish king only a nominal authority over those 
remaining to him. 

27. Twenty years later, the war with the Eussians again 
broke out; but they were defeated by the Poles, under 
their renowned leader Prince Po-ni-a-tow'shi, in several 
engagements, notwithstanding which Stanislas submitted 
to the second partition, by which the Polish territories 
were still further diminished (1793). The next year, the 

25. How was the next century occupied? What occurred during the reign of 
John Casimer ? 

26. What is said of John Sohieski ? Who was the last king of Poland ? De- 
scribe the first partition. 

27. What events preceded the second partition? What was done in 1794 ? 



1862.] EUROPEAN STATES. 335 

Poles made an ineffectual effort to regain their lost liber- 
ties, under that noble and illustrious patriot TJiad'de-us 
Kos-ci-us'ho, who had so generously lent his sword to the 
cause of American freedom, in the war of the Revolution. 

28. At first victorious, the brave Poles were soon obliged 
to succumb to the overwhelming masses of the Russians, 
commanded by the fierce and relentless Suwarrow ; and 
Kosciusko was wounded and made a prisoner (1794). 
Warsaw was soon after taken bv storm ; and the last relic 
of Polish independence was destroyed by the third parti- 
tion (1795). Stanislas died a broken-hearted exile in St. 
Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for some time a cap- 
tive at St. Petersburg, was afterward released ; and for 
many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. 
In the last-named country he died, from the effects of a fall 
from his horse (1817). 

29. The wars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies 
of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining 
their independence ; but these were destroyed by the Con- 
gress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish territories to 
Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remainder the 
Kingdom of Poland, under the control of the Czar. After 
the unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this 
kingdom was incorporated with the Russian empire. 
Another, but still unsuccessful, insurrection against the 
Russian government, took place in 1862. 

Holland and Belgium. 

30. Holland and Belgium, called the Netherlands, or 
Low Countries, constituted, in 843, a part of Germany. 
For several centuries, it was under the rule of petty 
princes ; and afterward constituted a part of the Duchy of 

28. What led to the third partition? What is related of Stanislas and Kosci- 
usko? 

29. When and how was the kingdom of Poland formed? What occurred in 
1830 and 1862 ? 

30. Give a sketch of the early history of Holland and Belgium. 



336 EUROPEAN STATES. , [1713. 

Burgundy. Several of its cities, as Ghent, Ant'iuerp, Brus- 
sels, and Mech'lin, grew strong and rich by their trade and 
manufactures. The death of Charles the Bold, and the 
marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, with Maxi- 
milian, brought the Netherlands, for a time, under the sway 
of Austria (1477); but they subsequently passed, by in- 
h eritance, to the emperor Charles V., who was the grand- 
son of Mary of Burgundy. 

31. The historical importance of these states commences 
in the reign of Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor 
of Charles, through the resistance made by their spirited 
inhabitants to the tyranny and intolerance of that bigoted 
monarch. Under their great leader, William of Orange, 
surnamed the " Silent," the Seven United Provinces suc- 
cessfully revolted against the cruelties of the Duhe of Alva, 
viceroy of Philip, and achieved their independence, William 
becoming the first Stadtholder (1579). This illustrious 
personage was assassinated in 1584, but the United Prov- 
inces were presided over by the Princes of Orange till the 
French Revolution. The other provinces (Belgium) con- 
tinued to belong to Spain, till they were transferred to 
Austria (1713). 

32. The Dutch Republic became, a short time after its 
independence, the most formidable maritime power in the 
world. The part taken by it in the great European wars, 
and its successive contests with Great Britain, have already 
been related. During the French Revolution, the National 
Convention having declared war against Holland, the 
country was overrun by the French armies ; and the anti- 
Orange faction excited a popular insurrection which ex- 
pelled William V., the last of the Stadtholders, and led to 
the establishment of the Batavian Republic, under the 

31. When and how does the historical importance of the Netherlands com- 
mence ? How was the independence of the Seven Provinces secured ? What is 
said of William the Silent ? How long did the Princes of Orange preside over the 
country ? To whom did Belgium belong ? 

32. What did the Dutch Republic become ? What happened during the French 
Eevolution ? 



1865.] EUKOPEAN STATES. 337 

protection and control of the French (1795). Belgium 
was made a part of France. 

33. Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother Louis king 
of Holland, but afterward dethroned him, and annexed the 
country to France. After the fall of Napoleon, the Con- 
gress of Vienna reunited Holland and Belgium, and thus 
formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was placed 
under one of the Orange family, with the title of William I. 
This union lasted till 1830, when Belgium successfully re- 
volted, and became a separate kingdom, Leopold, a German 
prince, being placed upon the throne. In 1865, he was 
succeeded by Leopold II. Holland is now (1869) ruled by 
William III., who ascended the throne in 1849. 

Sweden, Nokway, a^d Denmakk. 

34. These three countries were in the Middle Ages in- 
habited by a Scandinavian people, the descendants of the 
Groths and other barbarous races. Each was governed by 
its own princes till the beginning of the 14th century, 
when Norway was united with Sweden. The three coun- 
tries were formed into one kingdom, under the rule of 
Margaret, Queen of Denmark, in the latter part of the 
same century (1397). This union, however, was neither 
effectual nor permanent ; but the kings of Denmark con- 
tinued to claim and exercise some sway over these countries 
till 1523, when Sweden was freed from the tyranny of 
Christian II. of Denmark, by the patriotic exertions of the 
renowned Gustavus Vasa. 

35. Sweden. — This illustrious man was afterward 
elected king of Sweden, and, by his wise and beneficent 
measures, established the prosperity of the kingdom, and 
gave to this semi-barbarous state an honorable place among 

33. What disposition was made of Holland by Napoleon ? By the Congress of 
Vienna ? What other changes occurred in Holland and Belgium ? 

34. Give the history of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark to the time of Gustavus 
Vasa. 

35. What is related of Gustavus Vasa? Of Gustavus Adolphus ? Of Oxen- 
stiern ? 

15 



338 EUKOPEAK STATES. [1718. 

the civilized monarchies of Europe. His reign of thirty- 
seven years (1523-1560) was also signalized by the estab- 
lishment of Protestantism. The next important reign was 
that of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, the hero of Lut- 
zen. His death, in 1632, would have been an irreparable 
disaster to his country but for the virtues and talents of 
his minister Ox'en-stiern (stem), who administered the 
government during the minority of Chris-ti'na, daughter 
of Gustavus. 

36. Charles XI, during his long reign (1660-1697), suc- 
ceeded in enlarging the Swedish territories, and obtained 
from the Diet a decree giving to him absolute power. His 
reign was exceedingly prosperous, and the internal condi- 
tion of the kingdom was much improved. Charles XII., 
called sometimes the " Madman of the North" succeeded. 
His passion for conquest and military glory plunged his 
country in many miseries and misfortunes. A coalition 
formed against him by Denmark, Poland, and Russia, led 
to the Northern War, in which Charles gained several bril- 
liant victories over the Danes and Russians ; and having 
succeeded in dethroning the king of Poland, placed in his 
stead Stanislas (1704). 

37. The celebrated contest with Peter the Great fol- 
lowed; and Charles invaded Russia with a large army, 
which, after suffering the most dreadful hardships from 
cold and hunger, was finally defeated at Pol-ta'va (1709). 
Charles took refuge in Turkey, and succeeded in persuading 
the Turkish emperor to declare war against Russia ; but he 
afterward quarrelled with the emperor, and was compelled, 
after remaining more than five years in Turkey, to flee. 
He returned to Sweden in 1714; and still continued to 
carry out his ambitious designs till his death, which oc- 
curred during the siege of a town in Norway (1718). 

36. What is said of the reign of Charles XI. ? What was the character of 
Charles XII. ? What led to the Northern War ? What was accomplished in it hy 
Charles XII. ? 

37. What other events occurred during his reign ? When did it end ? 



1523.] EUKOPEAN STATES. 339 

38. The vacillating policy of Gustavus IV., during the 
Napoleonic wars, led to the loss of Bothnia and Finland ; 
and, in 1809, he was obliged to abdicate in favor of his 
uncle, Charles XIII. This king being without heirs, Ber- 
na-dotte', one of Napoleon's marshals, was raised to the 
rank of Grown Prince (1810), and became virtually the 
king. With the title of Charles XIV. he formally ascended 
the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, the two coun- 
tries having been united by the Congress of Vienna. His 
reign, which was characterized by vigor and moderation, 
lasted until 1844, when he was succeeded by his son Oscar. 
Since the death of the latter, in 1859, the kingdom of Nor- 
way and Sweden has been ruled by his grandson Charles 
XV. Each country, however, continues to have its own 
separate legislature. 

39. Norway continued to be united with Denmark till 
1814, when, by the treaty of Kiel {heel), the allied powers 
compelled the latter to resign her possession of Norway 
to Sweden. The union of the two countries was afterward 
confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. The people of Nor- 
way made some resistance to this arrangement; but the 
country being invaded by an army under Bernadotte, they 
were reduced to submission. The constitutional privileges 
of the nation have, however, been retained ; and the condi- 
tion of the country, under the Bernadotte dynasty, has 
been one of peace and prosperity. 

40. Denmark. — After the separation of Sweden and Den- 
mark (1523), the latter was governed by Frederick I., who 
introduced the Lutheran religion into his dominions. Dur- 
ing the next reign, Sles'wich and HoV stein were annexed to 
the Danish territories. Under Christian IV., Denmark took 
an active part in the Thirty Years' "War ; but defeat and 

38. What caused the loss of Bothnia and Finland ? What led to the election 
of Bernadotte ? Of what countries was he made king ? What is said of his 
reign ? Who succeeded him ? Who is the reigning sovereign ? 

39. Give the history of Norway subsequent to 1814. 

40. What events are related in the history of Denmark subsequent to the loss 
of Sweden ? 



340 EUROPEAN STATES. [1864. 

disaster were the consequence, and Christian was obliged 
to submit to very humiliating conditions of peace (1629). 

41. During the Napoleonic wars/ Great Britain, claiming 
the right to search foreign vessels, took a Danish frigate 
that had made resistance. This led to a league with Rus- 
sia, Prussia, and Sweden, against the naval power of Great 
Britain. Nelson, however, attacked and destroyed the 
Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen, and thus para- 
lyzed the power of the confederacy (1801). The British 
again destroyed the Danish fleet in 1807, in consequence 
of a threatened alliance with France. By the treaty of 
Vienna, Denmark received the Duchy of Lau'en-burg 
(1815). 

42. In 1848, a revolt occurred in Sleswick and Holstein, 
to produce a separation of the Duchies from the Danish 
crown ; but it was subdued, through assistance furnished 
by Austria. In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, 
compelled Denmark to give up these territories, and thus 
confined her sway to the peninsula and the adjacent islands. 
The marriage, in 1863, of the English Prince of Wales to 
Alexandra, daughter of the Danish king, Christian IX., 
has a third time allied Denmark to Great Britain. 

Russia. 

43. The ancestors of the Russians were the Slaves, who, 
at an early period, formed settlements near the sources of 
the Dnieper, Dniester, and Don rivers, and the Baltic Sea. 
Of these, Nov-go-rocl' and Kief (ke-ef) were the chief. The 
size and influence of the former, while a member of the 
Hanseatic League in the 13th century, were so great, that 
it was called the " Mighty Novgorod." It was the metrop- 
olis of one of the most extensive of the Russian states, oc- 



41. What events occurred during the Napoleonic wars ? 

42. What revolt happened in 1848? What caused the loss of the Duchies? 
What alliance has been formed with England ? 

43. Who were the ancestors of the Russians ? Where did they settle ? Which 
Were their chief settlements ? What is said of Novgorod ? 



1703.] EUROPEAN STATES. 341 

cupying a vast tract stretching from the Baltic to the 
White Sea. 

44. For several centuries Russia was overrun by the Mon- 
gols, from whom it was emancipated by Ivan III., one of 
the greatest of its monarchs, who, during his reign of nearly 
half a century (1462-1505), did very much to improve and 
elevate the people. He had married a niece of Constantine 
Palseologus, and endeavored to introduce into his country 
the laws, institutions, and arts of civilization peculiar to 
the Greek empire. During this and the two succeeding 
reigns, the petty principalities were abolished, and Eussia 
assumed the character of a consolidated empire (1584). A 
short time previous to this, the conquest of Siberia had 
been commenced; and, in 1661, Ir-houtsh' was founded. 

45. Eussia owes its greatness as a European power to 
the talents and energy of Peter the Great, who was one of 
the most extraordinary personages described in history. 
With an inflexible will, he was dismayed by no difficulty 
and appalled by no danger. With the spirit of an enlight- 
ened patriot, he resolved to introduce among his people the 
useful arts, the civilized customs, and the beneficent insti- 
tutions which he saw prevailing in other countries of Eu- 
rope. To accomplish this, he visited England, Holland, 
and other countries ; and even engaged himself as a com- 
mon mechanic, to obtain a knowledge of the arts which he 
desired to teach his people. In 1703, the capital was re- 
moved from Moscow to his new city, St. Petersburg. 

46. Previous to this, the war with Charles XII. of Sweden 
broke out ; and Peter was defeated with great loss in the 
battle of Narva (1700).* Profiting by this experience, the 
Russian monarch reorganized his army ; and when Charles 

* Narva is situated in the western part of Russia, near the Gulf of Finland. 



44. By whom was Eussia overrun ? What is said of Ivan m. ? What change 
took place in Russia ? What conquest was made ? 

45. To whom does Russia owe its greatness ? What is said of Peter the Great ? 

46. Describe his wars with Charles XII. What saved him from defeat by the 
Turks ? When did Peter the Great die ? 



342 EUROPEAN STATES. [1825. 

invaded Eussia, in 1707, he was permitted to penetrate 
farther and farther into those dreary regions of frost and 
famine, till, with a small and half-famished remnant of his 
great army, he was surrounded at Poltava, and entirely de- 
feated (1709). Two years later, Peter allowed the Eussian 
army to be surrounded by the Turks near the Pruth (proot) 
river; and was saved from a terrible disaster by an artifice 
of the Empress Catharine, who bought off the vizier with 
her jewels. Peter the Great died in 1725. 

47. Catharine I., the widow of the great Czar, succeeded 
him, ruling for two years. She had originally been a peas- 
ant girl; but by her prudence, intelligence, and enterprise, 
she did much to facilitate the beneficent objects of her dis- 
tinguished husband. Prince Men'schi-koff, the chief min- 
ister of Peter, had also risen from a very humble station. 
During the reign of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great 
and Catharine, Eussia became prominent among the nations 
of Europe, and took a distinguished part in the Seven 
Years' War (1740-48). 

48. The profligate empress Catharine II (1762-96) had 
the celebrated Po-tem'kin for her minister and favorite- 
Wars were waged with Turkey and Poland, and the Crimea 
was wrested from the former in 1784. The Turks were 
afterward severely defeated by the famous general Suwccr- 
row, and compelled to submit to further loss of territory. 
This general also distinguished himself during the next 
reign (Paul) in the wars waged against Napoleon. Paul 
was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded by Alexander 
L, who entered into the several coalitions formed against 
Napoleon. He died in 1825. 

49. The reign of Nicholas I, who was a stern despot, is 



47. What is said of Catharine I. ? Prince Menschikoff ? The Empress Eliza- 
beth ? 

48. What is related of the reign of Catharine II. ? Of Suwarrow? Who suc- 
ceeded Catharine II. ? What ended the reign of Paul ? Who succeeded him ? 
What is said of the reign of Alexander I. ? 

49. What were the chief events of the reign of Nicholas I. ? By whom was he 
succeeded ? What took place in 1856 ? 



1865.] EUROPEAN STATES. 343 

noted for the insurrection in Poland (1830) ; and the cruel 
punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate Poles by the 
remorseless emperor. The crushing out of the Hungarian 
insurrection by the interference of Russia, and the Crimean 
war, were also eyents of this reign. Nicholas died while 
the latter was in progress, and was succeeded by the present 
emperor, Alexander II. (1855). The next year, the treaty 
of Paris was concluded, by which Russia was obliged to 
resign her pretensions to the Danubian principalities, and 
to the unrestricted navigation of the Black Sea. 

50. Alexander's reign has, in many respects, been mild 
and beneficent. Many important reforms have been intro' 
duced into the empire, the greatest of which is the abolition 
of serfdom, by which fourteen millions of people have been 
released from bondage, and made free citizens. The em- 
peror's severe measures against the Poles, after the insur- 
rection of 1863-4, considerably modified the good opinion 
in which he had previously been held. During this reign, 
Russia has made considerable acquisitions of territory in 
Asia, the chief of which are the regions of the Cau' casus 
(1859), the valley of the A-mour' River, and the northern 
portion of Tur-hes-tan' (1865). 

Switzerland. 

51. The chief events in the history of Switzerland, after 
the establishment of its independence in 1499, were those 
connected with the changes in religion brought about by 
the celebrated Protestant preacher Zivin'gle, an associate 
of Luther and Melancthon. The Cantons were soon in- 
volved in a civil war on account of religious dissensions. 
Zurich, in 1523, adopted the opinions of Zwingle, and was 
followed by Berne, and other Cantons in the north ; while 

50. What is said of the reign of Alexander II. ? What have been its chief 
events ? 

51. What is said of the history of Switzerland subsequent to 1499 ? Who was 
Ulric Zwingle ? What involved the Cantons in civil war ? What was the result ? 
Who was Calvin ? What is said of his doctrines ? 



344 EUEOPEAH STATES. [1848. 

the forest Cantons remained attached to the Church of 
Rome. In a battle fought in 1531, the latter were victo- 
rious, and Zwingle was slain. Geneva was the residence 
of John Calvin, one of the most distinguished of the 
Protestants ; and from his preaching spread the doctrines 
which afterward characterized the Puritans of England, 
and the people of Scotland. The death of Calvin occurred 
in 1564. 

52. The neutrality of Switzerland was preserved during 
the Thirty Years' War; and at its close, the peace of 
"Westphalia secured the independence of the Confederacy, 
by acknowledging it as a separate state. At this period, 
the Swiss were among the best soldiers in Europe, and 
were employed in immense numbers by foreign states. In 
1798, the French armies overran Switzerland; and, in 
1802, Napoleon, as First Consul, annexed three of the 
Cantons to France, and constituted of the others a Confed- 
eration dependent upon it. The Congress of Vienna re- 
stored the Cantons, and re-established the republic, con- 
sisting of 22 Cantons (1815). The Constitution of 1848 
vests the supreme power in a Federal Assembly consisting 
of two houses, whose place of meeting is at Berne. 

Italy. 

53. Italy continued to be divided into a number of small 
states until a very recent period. , Among these, the Duchy 
of Sa-voy' became, in the latter period of the Middle Ages, 
a power of considerable importance. During the wars of 
Louis XIV. of France, it took sides with the allies, and was 
rewarded, by the treaty of Utrecht, with the island of Sicily 
and other territories. The Kingdom of Sardinia originated 
in a treaty made between Savoy and- Austria (1720), by 
which Sicily was exchanged for the island of Sardinia, and 

52. What followed the peace of Westphalia? What is said of the Swiss sol- 
diers ? What changes have occurred since, in the government of Switzerland ? 

53. What is said of Italy in the Middle Ages ? What is said of Savoy ? Of the 
kingdom of Sardinia ? 



1867.] EUEOPEAK STATES. 345 

the Duke of Savoy was acknowledged king. By Napoleon 
it was stripped of much of its territory, which was restored 
by the Congress of Vienna, who also annexed to it the 
ancient republic of Genoa. 

54. Charles Albert was a vigorous and enterprising mon- 
arch ; and during his reign (1831-49) many reforms were 
introduced into the government, in compliance with the 
demands for a more liberal policy, by the people. At the 
revolutionary period of 1848, the king announced a new 
constitution, which was hailed with much satisfaction. An 
insurrection of the Austrian states of Italy broke out, and 
the king placed himself at the head of the Italian forces. 
Being disastrously defeated, he was compelled to abdicate 
in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel (1849). 

55. During the reign of the latter, many changes have 
taken place in Italy. Joseph Gar-i-bal'di, called by some, 
from the simplicity of his dress, the "Hero of the Red 
Shirt," landing in Sicily, proclaimed himself Dictator for 
Victor Emanuel. Having stormed Palermo, and defeated 
the troops of the King of Naples, he invaded the mainland, 
arid, continuing in his victorious career, compelled the king 
(Francis II., nicknamed JBombino) to flee (1860). 

56. Victor Emanuel afterward entered Naples, and was 
acknowledged king. Lombardy had been wrested the year 
before from Austria, through the aid of the French emperor, 
Napoleon III., who gained the splendid victories of Magenta 
and Solferino over the Austrian forces. As a result of the 
successful insurrection of 1860, the states of Italy, except 
Venetia and the Papal states, by general resolution, were 
consolidated into the Kingdom of Italy, under the rule 
of Victor Emanuel. After the Six Weeks' War of 1867, 
Venetia was also surrendered by Austria, and annexed to 



54. What account is given of Charles Albert ? Who succeeded him ? 

55. What is said of the insurrection under Garibaldi ? 

56. Who was acknowledged king of Naples ? How was Lombardy annexed tc 
Italy? How wae the kingdom of Italy formed? How was Venetia acquired? 
What is now the capital of Italy ? 

15* 



346 EUROPEAN STATES. [1580 

the Italian kingdom, the capital of which is now at Flor- 
ence. 

Spain". 

57. Charles V. of Germany, previous to his election as 
emperor, inherited the throne of Spain, being the grandson 
of Isabella of Castile. His reign, which commenced at the 
death of Ferdinand (1516), lasted forty years ; but is chiefly 
occupied with the general affairs of Europe. Cardinal 
Ximenes (he-ma' nes), one of the most celebrated personages 
of his age, administered the government till 1517, with 
great vigor and ability. Charles was succeeded, on his 
abdication, by Philip II. (1556), who thus became one of 
the greatest potentates on earth, being ruler over Spain, 
the Netherlands, Sicily, Naples, and other parts of Italy, 
besides of such parts of the New World as had been added 
to the dominions of Spain by the discoveries of Columbus 
and his Spanish successors. 

58. Philip's schemes were principally actuated by bigotry, 
and nearly all ended in utter failure ; so that, at his death 
(1598), he left the country despoiled of some of its best 
possessions, impoverished by ruinous wars, and greatly 
lowered in the respect of foreign nations. His successor 
(Philip III.) still further weakened the kingdom by the 
expulsion of the Moors (1610), who had been permitted by 
Ferdinand to remain in the country, on condition of their 
accepting Christianity. This measure of Philip III., which 
was based on the charge of hypocrisy in the professed con- 
version of the Moors, deprived Spain of 500,000 of its most 
useful population. 

59. The reign of Philip IV. (1621-65) was noted for the 
loss of Portugal, which had been annexed to Spain during 
the reign of Philip II. (1580). It now re-established its 

5 7. What is said of Charles V. and his reign in Spain? Who was Cardinal 
Ximenes ? What is said of Philip II. ? 

58. What was the character of Philip's schemes and their result? How was 
Spain weakened by Philip III. ? What is said of this measure ? 

59. For what is' the reign of Philip IV. noted ? Charles II. ? Philip V. ? 



1869.] EUROPEAN STATES. 347 

independence as a separate kingdom under the Duhe of 
Bra-gan 'za (1640). Philip IV. made the most strenuous 
exertions to recover the lost province, and his failure is 
said to have partly occasioned his death. During the next 
reign {Charles II, 1665-1700), Spain was left, by the im- 
becility of its government, a prey to the other nations of 
Europe, by whom it was despoiled of many of its best pos- 
sessions. The placing of Philip V. upon the throne, by his 
grandfather, Louis XIV., led to the War of the Spanish 
Succession. 

60. The attempts of the Emperor Napoleon I. to obtain 
control of Spain, occasioned the Peninsular War, the chief 
events of which have already been related. The conclusion 
of peace, in 1814, restored Ferdinand VII. to the throne, 
who dissolved the Cortes, or Parliament, and established 
an absolute rule. A revolution which broke out in 1820, 
compelled him to restore the free constitution formed in 
1812, and placed him under restraint. Louis XVIII. of 
France, however, sending an army into Spain, released him, 
and restored his authority. 

61. Isabella succeeded her father in 1833, but was soon 
opposed by Don Carlos, her uncle, who claimed the throne 
on the ground that Isabella was excluded by the Salic law. 
A war of four years followed, between the party who sup- 
ported the government of the queen-dowager, Chris-ti'na, 
acting as regent for the young queen, and the adherents 
of Don Carlos. Great Britain finally sent an army in aid 
of "Isabella; and Don Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to 
France. Isabella's rule gave great dissatisfaction, and sev- 
eral revolutionary movements have occurred, in the last of 
which, the queen was deprived of the throne (1868). A 
provisional government now exercises authority over the 
country ; but a constituent Cortes has been elected, in which 
the monarchist party is largely in the ascendant (1869). 

60. What caused the Peninsular War ? What was done in 1814 ? In 1820 ? 

61. Give an account of Isabella's reign. How did it end ? 



348 EUROPEAN STATES. [1T50. 

POETUGAL. 

62. It was during the reign of Manuel, surnamed the 
Great (1495-1521), that Vasco da Gama made his success- 
ful yoyage to India, by way of the Cape of Good Hope 
(1497). This was soon followed by the accidental discovery 
of Brazil, by Cabral (1500), thus giving that extensive and 
fertile region to the Portuguese. An unfortunate expedi- 
tion of Sebastian III. to Morocco (1578), from which he 
never returned, left Portugal without a sovereign, and occa- 
sioned disorder and anarchy, — the people constantly looking 
for the return of their king, of whose fate no tidings were 
ever received. 

63. Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of these circum- 
stances, seized upon the country (1580) ; and for sixty 
years it was held in subjection to the Spanish crown. 
During this period, it suffered much from the oppressive 
exactions of its conquerors, being obliged to share in the 
taxation occasioned by the long and expensive wars waged 
by the Spanish monarchs. At last, it was set free by a rev- 
olution; and Jolm IV., Duke of Braganza, ascended the 
throne (1G40). Long wars followed with Spain, which did 
not acknowledge its independence till 1668. 

64. During the next century, Portugal remained in a 
state of inglorious stagnation, being steeped in ignorance 
and bigotry ; and, after being one of the greatest maritime 
nations of the world, was content to become a kind of com- 
mercial dependent of Great Britain. Under the reign of 
Joseph I. (1750-77), the genius and enterprise of his great 
minister, Bon Carvalho (kar-val'yo) infused a temporary 
vigor in the government ; but this was checked by the ac- 
cession of his daughter Maria, who permitted the nobles 

62. What is said of the reign of Manuel of Portugal? How and hy whom was 
Brazil discovered ? What occasioned trouble and disorder ? 

63. To what did these troubles lead? How long was Portugal under Spanish 
rule ? What was its character ? How and when did it regain its freedom ? 

64. What is said of its history during the next century ? Of the reign 0' Jo- 
seph I. ? 



1861.] EUROPEAN - STATES. 349 



and clergy to resume their destructive influence. Her in- 
sanity led to the appointment of her eldest son, John VI. } 
as regent (1792). 

65. The invasion of Portugal by the French, under Mar- 
shal Junot, induced John to abandon Portugal and retire 
to Brazil (1807), where he remained until 1821 ; although, 
by the death of his mother, he had been acknowledged king 
in 1816. His return was occasioned by the breaking out 
of a revolution in Portugal, which had for its object the 
establishment of a government securing the rights of the 
people. John VI. accepted the new constitution, and ac- 
knowledged the independence of Brazil, the throne of the 
latter country being occupied by his son, Don Pedro (1825), 
with the title of Emperor. 

66. On the death of John VI. (1826), his son Don Pe- 
dro, preferring the Brazilian throne, resigned that of Por- 
tugal in favor of his daughter, Maria da Gloria ; but his 
brother, Bon Miguel (me'gwel), who had previously op- 
posed the reforms in the government, laid claim to the 
throne, and obtained an acknowledgement of his right by 
the Cortes (1828). This led to a dreadful condition of 
anarchy, which was terminated by Don Pedro, with the 
aid of the British ; and Miguel being defeated, Maria ob- 
tained possession of the throne (1833). This and the sub- 
sequent reign were characterized by great national disas- 
ters. The present king, Louis I, ascended the throne in 
1861 ; and a better state of things now prevails. 

Tukkey. {From 1453 to the present time.) 

67. Mohammed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, 
greatly enlarged the Turkish territories; and his son, 
Bajazet II. (1481-1512), extended his dominions to the 

65. What followed Junot' s invasion of Portugal? When and why did John 
return from Brazil ? What course did he adopt with respect to the new constitu- 
tion ? With respect to Brazil ? 

66. What followed the death of John VI. ? Who laid claim to the throne ? 
What was the result ? What else is related of Portugal ? 

67. What is said of Mohammed EL ? Bajazet II. ? Selim I. ? Soliman ? 



350 EUROPEAN STATES. [1566. 

present limits of the Ottoman empire, adding besides a 
part of the region north of the Black Sea, and portions of 
Italy and Austria. His successor, Selim I, a monarch of 
great enterprise and ability, made conquest of Syria and 
Egypt, and laid the foundation of the Turkish naval 
power, which so long disputed the empire of the Mediterra- 
nean with the fleets of Venice. The greatest power and 
splendor were, however, attained by the Ottoman empire 
during the reign of Soliman, surnamed the Magnificent 
(1520-66). 

68. This great monarch reduced the powerful Danubian 
fortresses of Belgrade, wrested the island of Ehodes from 
its persevering and valiant defenders, the Knights of St. 
John, and, having subjugated Hungary, marched to Vien- 
na, which he besieged for four years. He also carried on a 
successful war with the Shah (emperor) of Persia ; and his 
fleets triumphantly swept the Mediterranean from the 
Strait of Gibraltar to the Levant. One of his last under- 
takings was an unsuccessful attack on the island of Malta, 
which the Emperor Charles V. had given to the Knights 
of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes. 

69. During the reign of Selim II. (1566-74), the German 
emperor agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Turks for 
their surrender of Hungary. The attempt to take Astra- 
chan,* preliminary to the construction of a canal between 
the Don and Volga rivers — a scheme projected by the 
Turkish emperor for commercial purposes — aroused the hos- 
tility of the Russians, a people until that time little 
known in Southern Europe. Thus were commenced those 
fierce wars, which for centuries have been waged by these 
neighboring empires. During the reign of Selim, the 
fleets of Turkey received a check by the great naval defeat 

* A city of Russia, near the mouth of the Volga River. 



68. What conquests were made by Soliman ? Where was he defeated T 

69. What events occurred during the reign of Selim II. ? 



1792.] EUROPEAN" STATES. 351 

sustained at Lepanto,* in an action fought with Don John 
of Austria (1571). 

70. The subsequent reigns, for more than a century, pre- 
sent only a continuous series of contests with Austria, Po- 
land, and Eussia, in which the Ottoman power succeeded 
in extending its dominions from the Danube to the Tigris, 
and from the southern limits of Egypt to the falls of the 
Dnieper River. It sustained, however, several defeats, of 
which that at Vienna by the Poles under their king, John 
Sobieski, was the most memorable. The assistance given 
to Charles XIL, after the battle of Poltava, involved the 
Turks in a war with Peter the Great, to whom it would 
have proved a great disaster, had he not been rescued by 
the skilful artifice of the Empress Catharine. A short 
time after this, the 3forea\ was taken from the Venetians 
(1714). 

71. The remaining portion of the history of Turkey is 
characterized by its contests with Eussia, which has proved 
its most formidable foe, despoiling it of many of its most 
valuable possessions. During a six-years' war (1768-74), 
the Russians overran the Crimea, which they succeeded in 
retaining, notwithstanding the most desperate efforts of 
the Turks to regain it. While Catharine II. of Russia was 
on the throne, the Turks were assailed by the combined 
power of Russia and Austria, the forces of the former being 
commanded by Marshal Suiuarroiv, the most famous of 
Russian generals, and particularly noted for his resolution 
and relentless ferocity, — qualities which he particularly 
displayed in his contests with the unfortunate Poles. 
Peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792. 

* Zepanto is situated in Greece, on the north coast of the g-ulf of the same name. 

t Morea is the modern name of the ancient Peloponnesus, in the southern part of Greece. 



70. What do the subsequent reigns present ? What defeats did Turkey sus 
tain ? What caused a war with Peter the Great ? What is said of it ? What con- 
quest was made from the Venetians ? 

7 1 . What is said of the contests of Turkey with Russia ? When was the Crimea 
conquered ? What war arose during the Empress Catharine's reign ? What is 
said of Suwarrow ? When was peace made ? 



352 EUROPEAN STATES. [1820. 

72. The conquest of Egypt and the invasion of Syria 
by Napoleon have already been referred to. By the aid of 
the British, the lost territories were regained. One of the 
most interesting events since that time, is the successful 
insurrection of the Greeks, whose independence was se- 
cured by the battle of Naoarino (1827). The wars waged 
with the rebellious Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet All {ma' he- 
met ah'le), still further reduced the strength of the empire. 
This contest was terminated in 1841, by the virtual surren- 
der of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, he being made hereditary 
viceroy. His son, Ibrahim Pacha (ib'rah-him pa-shaw'), 
succeeded him in 1848. 

73. Eussia has repeatedly taken advantage of the present 
weakness of the Ottoman empire, to attempt its spoliation. 
In the Crimean war, Turkey was successfully aided by 
Great Britain and France, in opposing the schemes of con- 
quest of the Emperor Nicholas; and, by the treaty of 
Paris, it regained a portion of territory north of the Dan- 
ube, and was released from its ignoble subservience to the 
Russian empire. During the last few reigns, attempts have 
been made to introduce reforms in the government, and to 
advance the civilization of the people. The present empe- 
ror (Ab'chcl A'ziz) ascended the throne in 1861, and has 
shown in his administration a liberal and energetic spirit. 

Greece. 

74. Erom the capture of Constantinople (1453) until a 
recent date, Greece was under the Mohammedan yoke, 
which was made galling and oppressive to the last degree 
by the brutal and fanatical Turks. In 1820, the Greeks 
determined to make a struggle for their independence; and 
Mav-ro-cor-da'to was proclaimed president. His most cel- 

72. What other events are mentioned ? When was Egypt surrendered ? 

73. What caused the Crimean War ? What was its result ? What is said of the 
recent reigns ? 

74. How long was Greece under the Mohammedan rule ? What is said of it ? 
What took place in 1820 ? What is related of Marco Bozzaris ? For what is Mis- 
eolonghi noted ? 



1862.] EUEOPEA^" STATES. 353 

ebrated compeer in the dreadful contest that ensued, was 
Marco Bozzaris (bot-sah'ris), — called, sometimes, the " Le- 
onidas of Modern Greece." This heroic chief perished in 
a night-attack upon the Turkish camp (1823), near Misso- 
longhi, one of the chief centres of the insurrection. This 
place also derives a mournful interest from the death of 
Lord Byron, who died there of a fever, occasioned by his 
earnest efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). 

75. The fall of this place, after a long siege, in which its 
brave defenders suffered the most dreadful hardships from 
famine, and which closed by their captivity, aroused the 
sympathy of Europe; and England, France, and Eussia 
formed a league to assist the brave Greeks in their unequal 
contest. The combined fleets of the allies entirely de- 
stroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the harbor of 
Navarino (Oct. 20, 1827). After this victory, Count Capo 
d'Istria, a native of the island of Corfu, was formally in- 
stalled as President of Greece. Its independence was ac- 
knowledged by the Turkish sultan in 1829. 

76. Made a separate kingdom by the allied powers, its 
first king was Otlio, a Bavarian prince (1832). His reign 
was somewhat troubled, by the discontent of his subjects 
with his German officials and foreign troops, and by Eus- 
sian intrigues for the purpose of involving the little king- 
dom in the insurrections of the neighboring provinces 
against Turkey. Having abdicated in 1862, he was suc- 
ceeded the following year by Prince William of Denmark, 
who now occupies the throne with the title of George I., 
King of the Hellenes.* 

* George I. is a brother of Alexandra, wife of the Prince of Wales, the heir-apparent to the 
British throne. 



7 5. What excited the sympathy of Europe ? Who were defeated at Navarino ? 
Where is Navarino ? (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) Who was made President 
of Greece ? When was its independence acknowledged ? 

76. Who was the first king of Greece ? What is said of his reign ? By whom 
was he succeeded ? When ? 



354 EUROPEAN STATES. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

1397. Union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 

1462-1505. Reign of Ivan TIL, Czar of Russia. 

1493. Accession of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany. 

1500. Discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese navigator, Gabral. 

1516. Accession of Charles 1. of Spain (Charles V. of Germany). 

1517. Commencement of Martin Luther's preaching. 

1519. Accession of Charles V., Emperor of Germany. 

1520. Accession of Soliman the Magnificent. 

1523. Sweden freed from the yoke of Denmark by Gustavus Vasa. 

1529. Lutherans called Protestants at Spire. 

1530. Confession of Augsburg signed. 

1531. Zwingle slain. 
1552. Treaty of Passau. 

1556. Accession of Philip II. of Spain. 

1564. Death of John Calvin. 

1569. Union of Poland and Lithuania. 

1571. The Turkish fleet defeated at Lepanto by Don John of Austria. 

1579. William the Silent, the first Stadtholder of Holland. 

1580. Portugal annexed to Spain by Philip II. 
1584. Assassination of William the Silent. 
1598. Death of Philip II. of Spain. 

1610. Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. 

1618. Commencement of the Thirty Years' War. 

1632. Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. 

1640. Portugal freed from the Spanish yoke. Accession of John IV. t 

Duke of Braganza. 
1648. Peace of Westphalia. End of the Thirty Years' War. 
1661. Irkoutsk founded by the Russians. 
1679. Defeat of the Swedes by William, the Great Elector. 
1683. Defeat of the Turks by John Sobieski. 
1697. The Turks defeated by Prince Eugene. 
1700. Defeat of Peter the Great at Narva by Charles XII. 
1703. The capital of Russia removed to St. Petersburg. 
1709. Battle of Poltava. Defeat of Charles XII. by Peter the Great 
1714. The Morea conquered from the Venetians, by the Turks. 

1717. The Turks defeated at Belgrade by Prince Eugene. 

1718. Death of Charles XII. of SwedeD. 
1725. Death of Peter the Great. 
1740. Accession of Frederick the Great of Prussia. 



EUEOPEAN" STATES. 355 



L745. Accession of Francis I., Emperor of Germany. 

L756. Commencement of the Seven Years' War. 

L772. First Partition of Poland. 

L784 The Crimea ceded to Russia by the Turks. 

L793. Second Partition of Poland. 

1. 794. Kosciusko defeated and taken prisoner. 

L795. Third Partition of Poland. 

L801. The Danish fleet destroyed by Nelson at Copenhagen. 

" Paul, emperor of Russia, assassinated. 
1806. End of the Empire of Germany. 
L807. Prince John, Regent of Portugal, flees to Brazil. 

" Second bombardment of Copenhagen by the British. 
Bernadotte elected Crown Prince of Sweden. 
Switzerland made independent by the Congress of Vienna. 
Death of Marco Bozzaris. 

Brazil acknowledged an independent empire, under Don Pedro* 
Battle of Navarino. 
1829. The independence of Greece acknowledged. 
L830. Polish insurrection. 

" Belgium made an independent kingdom by a revolution. 
1832. Accession of Otho, first king of Greece. 

" Poland incorporated with the Russian empire. 
L833. Accession of Isabella, Queen of Spain. 
.841. Mehemet Ali made hereditary Viceroy of Egypt. 
.848. Revolt of Hungary, under Kossuth. 
.849. Accession of Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia. 

" Revolt of the Danish Duchies. 
.855. Accession of Alexander II, emperor of Russia. 

" Fall of Sebastopol. 
.859. The Caucasus conquered by the Russians. 

" Campaign of Magenta and Solferino. 
.860. Insurrection in Italy, under Garibaldi. 

" " King Bomba" of Naples compelled to flee. , 
i862. Polish insurrection. 

1863. New kingdom of Italy formed, under Victor Emanuel. 
" Accession of George I., King of the Hellenes. 

1864. Denmark deprived of the Duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and 

Lauenburg. 
1866. The " Six Weeks' War." 

" Battle of Sadowa. 
L868. Revolution in Spain. Queen Isabella dethroned. 



356 EUROPEAN STATES. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGB 

1. State what you can in relation to Martin Luther 235-237-325-326 

2. Give a sketch of the reign of Charles V. of Germany 325-326 

3. When did the hattle of Lutzen take place, and with what result ? 327 

4. Give a statement of the causes and events which led to that battle . . . 326-327 

5. Describe the part which Richelieu took in the " Thirty Years' War" .297-326-327 

6. Give a connected account of the Thirty Years' War 297-326-327 

7. Name, in order, the principal events of the reign of Leopold 1 327-328 

8. Give an account of the War of the Austrian Succession 269-270-303-328 

9. Give an account of the great " Seven Years' War" 270-303-329 

10. Name important events of the reign of Francis n. 307-309-310-311-312-313-316-329 

11. Give the history of the " Germanic Confederation" 329-330 

12. Give the history of the " North German Confederation" 330 

13. Of Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 1806 330 

14. Give a sketch of the history of Prussia up to the year 1462 331 

15. Give the subsequent history of Prussia up to the year 1701 331 

16. Give the further history of Prussia to the time of Frederick the Great. 331-332 

17. Give the history of Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great. . . 332-333 

18. State all the facts you can in relation to Blucher 315-316-317-332 

19. Give a sketch of the recent history of Prussia 333 

20. Give a sketch of the history of Poland to the reign of Sigismnnd II.. . . 333-331 
2 J . Of subsequent events, to the reign of John Sobieski 333-334 

22. Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to Sobieski 328-334 

23. What occurred in Poland during the reign of Stanislas Augustus ?. 334-335 

24. Give the particulars of the farther history of Poland 335 

25. Give the history of the Netherlands, to the reign of Charles V 336-338 

26. Give a sketch of the subsequent history of the Netherlands 336-337 

27. Give a sketch of the early history of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. . 337 

28. Name the important facts in the history of Sweden 337-338-339 

29. Name the important facts in the history of Norway 337-338-339 

30. Give a sketch of the history of Denmark 337-338-339-340 

31. Of Russia, to the reign of Peter the Great 340-341 

32. Give the particulars, as far as you can, in the life of Peter the Great. . . 341-342 

33. Of Charles Xn. of Sweden 338-341-342 

34. Of Catharine I. and Catharine n. of Russia 342 

35. Of Nicholas I. of Russia 342-343 

36. Of Alexander I. and Alexander n. of Russia 342-343 

37. Give a sketch of the history of Switzerland 217-219-343-344 

38. Of events in the modern history of Italy 344-345-346 

39. Of events in the modern history of Spain 346-347 

40. Give a sketch of the life of Philip H. of Spain 239-291-336-346-348 

41. Of events in the modern history of Portugal 348-349 

4-?. Of events in the modern history of Turkey 351-352 

43. Of events in the modern history of Greece 352-353 

44. Name, in order, important events of the 15th century. ..185-203-228-281-322-& s 4 

45. The important events of the 16th century 281-322-3-23-354 

46. The important events of the 17th century 281-282-323-354-355 

47. The important events of the 18th century 282-283-323-354-355 

48. The important events of the 19th century 383-323-355 

49. Give the names, as far as you can, of all the European monarchs of 

modern times that have died of other than a natural death 231 — 353 



TABLE OF COKTEMPOKA^EOUS EVENTS. 



357 



a.d. 1 England. 


France. 


Other Countries. 


148c 
148J 
149? 
149£ 


|! 


Charles VHI. 




.Henry VII. 


Maximilian of Germany, 


;| 


Louis XH. 
Francis I. 


150< 
151f 


Henry VHI. 




151f 




Charles V. of Germany. 
Soliman the Magnificent. 


vm 






1541 


Edward VI 


Henry II. 


1559 




Treaty of Passau. 
Philip H. of Spain. 


1553 
1556 


Mary. 




1558 
1559 


Elizabeth. 
• • . . . 


Francis H. 
Charles IX. 


1560 






1571 




Battle of Lepanto. 


1572 




St. Bartholomew's Massa. 
Henry HI. 


1574 






1579 




William the Silent. 


1589 




Henry rv 

Louis XHI 


1603 
1610 


James I. 


Moors expelled fromSpain 
Thirty Years' War begins 

Battle of Lutzen. 
Portugal independent. 


1618 




1625 
1632 


Charles I. 




1640 






1643 




Louis XIV. 


1618 




Peace of Westphalia. 

Sobieski defeats theTurks 

Battle of Narva. 
Battle of Poltava. 


1653 
1660 
1683 


Cromwell, Protector. 
Charles H. 




1685 
1689 
1700 


James II. 
William and Mary. 




1702 
1709 


Anne. 




1714 
1715 


George I. 


Louis XV. 


1718 




Death of Charles XII. 
Frederick the Great. 


1727 
1740 


George H. 




1760 
1774 


George HI. 


Louis XVI. 
French .Revolution. 


1789 






1795 




Third Partition of Poland 


1799 




Napoleon First Consul. 
Napoleon Emperor. 


1804 






1806 




End of German Empire. 


1814 




Louis XVHI. 
Charles X. 


1820 
1824 


George IV. 




18*5 




Brazil independent. 
Battle of Navarino. 

Isabella of Spain. 


1897 






1830 
1833 


William IV 


Louis Philippe. 


1837 
1848 


Victoria. 


Louis Philippe dethroned. 


1849 




Victor Emanuel. 


1852 




Napoleon HI. 


1855 




Sebastopol taken. 
Battles of Magenta and 
Solferino. 


1859 


( 




i :..:..,::.::::: 





358 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 




1792.] AMERICAN" HISTORY. 359 



section iv. 

American History. 

Discoveries and Settlements. 

1. America was discovered in 1492 by Christopher Co- 
lumbus, a native of Genoa (jen'o-a), Italy. With a fleet 
of three vessels, supplied by Queen Isabella, he set sail from 
Spain, and, after a voyage of ten weeks, reached one of the 
Bahama islands, to which he gave the name of San Salva- 
dor. He also discovered other islands belonging to the 
group of the West Indies ; and in another voyage he dis- 
covered the mainland, at the mouth of the O-ri-no'co 
(1498), in South America; but he was not aware that he 
had reached a new continent, supposing that the lands dis- 
covered belonged to Asia. 

2. The mainland of North America was first reached at 
Labrador, by John Cabot {hab'bot) and his son Sebastian, 
while sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of 
England (1497). The country was called America, from 
Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re'go ves-poot'che), a Florentine 
navigator, who, in 1499 and 1501, visited the eastern coast 
of South America, and, on his return to Europe, gave an 
interesting account of his voyages, thus acquiring the repu- 
tation of being the first discoverer of the country. 

3. Twenty years after Columbus's first voyage, Ponce de 
Leon (pon'tha da la-on'), an aged Spaniard, accidentally 

Map Questions.— (See Map, p. 358.) Where are the Bahama Islands ? The 
West Indies? Where is Guanahani, or San Salvador? Labrador? Florida? 
Quebec ? Acadia ? Nova Scotia ? New Brunswick ? Port Royal Entrance ? St. 
Augustine ? Virginia ? Cape Cod ? Maine ? Jamestown ? 

1 . By whom and when was America discovered ? Who was Columbus ? What 
land was first discovered? What else did Columbus discover? What did he 
suppose these lands to be ? 

2 When and by whom was North America discovered ?' Why was the country 

3 What account is given of the discovery of Florida ? Why was it so called f 
Give an account of the discovery and conquest of Mexico. 



360 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1583. 

discovered Florida, which received its name from the abun- 
dance of flowers with which its forests were adorned (1512). 
Five years later, Cor'do-va discovered Mexico, and explored 
the coast of Yu-ca-tan' . Mexico was afterward conquered 
by another Spaniard named Cor'tez, and became a province 
of Spain (1521). 

4. The belief being general among the Spaniards that 
Florida abounded in riches, De Soto {da so'to) landed on its 
shores in 1539, and penetrated into the interior. During 
his wanderings, which lasted nearly three years, he discov- 
ered the Mississippi (1541). Meanwhile, the French had 
sent out Verrazzani {ver-rat-tsah'ne), who explored the 
eastern coast of North America (1524) ; and James Cartier 
(car-te-d'), who, in two voyages, discovered the gulf and 
river of St. Lawrence (1534-5). 

5. The Huguenots desiring a place of refuge, at first at- 
tempted a settlement at Port Royal entrance (1562), in the 
region afterward named Carolina (in honor of the French 
king, Charles IX.) ; and two years later on the banks of the 
St. John's Eiver, Florida. Both attempts were unsuc- 
cessful. The year after (1565), the Spaniards made a set- 
tlement in Florida, at St. Augustine, having previously put 
the French settlers to death with barbarous cruelty. 

6. In 1583, an unsuccessful expedition was made by Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, sailing from England under a patent 
granted by Queen Elizabeth ; and the next year Sir Walter 
Raleigh dispatched two vessels to the new world, under 
Am'idas and Barlow, who visited the islands near the coast 
of North Carolina, and on their return gave so glowing an 
account of the country, that Elizabeth named the region 
discovered Virginia, as a memorial of her unmarried state. 

7. Two unsuccessful attempts were afterward made to es- 



4. What account is given of De Soto's expedition? Verrazzani's ? Cartier's ? 

5. Where did the Huguenots attempt to settle? With what results? When 
and by whom was St. Augustine settled ? 

6. What voyages were made by the English ? Why was the country called Vir- 
ginia ? 



1623.] AMERICAN" HISTORY. 361 

tablish a colony on Koanoke Island (1585-7) ; and an at- 
tempt farther north was made by Bartholomew Gosnold, who 
discovered Cape Cod (1602), but failed to effect a settlement. 
Martin Pring the following year explored the coast and 
large rivers of Maine. In 1606, King James I. divided the 
territory claimed by the English into North and South Vir- 
ginia, and granted the former to the Plymouth Company, 
the latter, to the London Company. The first permanent 
settlement under this grant was made at Jamestown, in 
1607, by an expedition sent out by the London Company. 

8. Virginia was thus the first English colony success- 
fully planted in North America. The want of industrial 
habits among the settlers at Jamestown at first greatly 
impeded its prosperity, and brought it at one time to the 
verge of ruin (1610). New emigrants, however, arrived; 
and its affairs being managed by the virtuous and prudent 
Lord Delaware (appointed governor in 1609), it soon began 
to assume a flourishing condition. Virginia afterward be- 
came a royal province, the London Company being dis- 
solved by the king (1624). 

9. Massachusetts was first settled in 1620, at Plymouth, 
Dy English Puritans, who, during the reign of James I., 
emigrated to America to find that religious liberty of which 
they were deprived in their own country. After the acces- 
sion of Charles L, another company of emigrants settled at 
Salem (1628) ; and two years afterward Boston was settled, 
principally by Puritans (1630). These two settlements 
belonged to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

10. New Hampshire was first settled in 1623, at Lit- 
tle Harbor, near Portsmouth, and at Lover, by English 
emigrants sent out by Ferdinand Gorges (gor'jez) and John 

7. What other attempts at settlement were made by the English ? What is said 
of Martin Pring ? How was the territory divided by James I. ? What was the 
first settlement made ? 

8. What is said of the early history of Virginia ? When and how did it become 
a royal province ? 

9. Give an account of the settlement of Plymouth. Of Salem. Of Boston. 
What were the first settlements of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ? 

1 0. Give a sketch of the early history of New Hampshire. 

16 



362 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1614. 

Mason, to whom this region had been granted, under the 
name of Laconia. The name New Hampshire was given 
to it in 1629. From 1641 to 1680, this colony was nnited 
to Massachusetts, from which it was not permanently sepa- 
rated until 1741. 

11. Connecticut was settled in 1633,, by a company 
of persons from Plymouth, at a place called Windsor (win'~ 
zer). Other settlements were made, by emigrants from 
Massachusetts, a short time afterward, the principal one 
being that at Hartford (1635-6). These settlements 
formed at first the Connecticut Colony. About the same 
time, a colony was planted at the mouth of the Connecticut 
Eiver, which was called Saybrooh. A third colony was 
established in 1638, which received the name of New 
Haven. These three colonies subsequently formed the 
colony of Connecticut (1665). 

12. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, who 
had been banished from Massachusetts because of his de- 
nunciation of the religious intolerance practised there, as 
well as for certain opinions entertained by him with respect 
to civil matters. The settlement was made in 1636, at 
Providence. The next year a company of emigrants left 
Boston on account of religious persecution, and settled on 
the island of Ehode Island, which was purchased from the 
Indians. These two settlements were united by a charter 
in 1644. 

13. New York, at first called New Netherlands, was 
settled in 1614 by the Dutch, who built a fort on Man-hat'- 
tan Island, for the purpose of trading with the Indians. 
Their attention had been directed to this spot by the dis- 
covery (in 1609) of the Hudson Eiver, by Henry Hudson, 
an English navigator, in the service of the " Dutch East 

1 1 . What were the first settlements made in Connecticut ? What other colo- 
nies were planted ? What did they afterward form ? 

1 2. What account is given of the early history of Rhode Island ? 

13. By whom was New York first settled? What led to it? What was it8 
name at first ? When did its colonization commence ? What settlements were 
made ? 



J 738.] AMERICAN" HISTORY. 363 

India Company." On this discovery the Dutch claimed 
the whole region from Cape Cod to the southern shore of 
Delaware Bay. The actual colonization of the country did 
not commence until 1623, when two settlements were 
made — one on Manhattan Island, called New Amsterdam, 
and the other at Albany, called Fort Orange. 

14. Four governors ruled in succession, the last and most 
noted of whom was Peter Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), during 
whose administration (1664) New Amsterdam was taken 
by the English ; and New Netherlands accordingly became 
an English colony, with the name of New York, being so 
called in honor of the Duke of York, to whom Charles II. 
had granted the territory. In 1673, during a war between 
England and Holland, the Dutch regained their former 
possessions ; but, after a period of fifteen months, returned 
them to the English. 

15. New Jersey. — The Dutch, who included New 
Jersey in the province of New Netherlands, established a 
trading-post at Bergen as early as 1622; but the coloniza- 
tion of the country did not commence till 1664, when a 
settlement was made at Elizaoetlitown (now Elizabeth) by 
emigrants from Long Island. Previous to this, however, 
this portion of New Netherlands had been sold by the 
Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, 
and was named New Jersey in honor of the latter, who had 
been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Chan- 
nel. The whole territory, in 1682, became the property of 
William Penn and other Quakers ; but in 1702, being given 
up by the proprietors, it formed, with New York, a royal 
province, and thus continued till 1738, when it became a 
separate province. 

16. Maryland was settled under a charter granted by 
Charles I. to Ce'cil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who wished to 

14. How many governors ruled ? Who was the most noted ? What occurred 
during Stuyvesant's rule? Why was the country called New York? What hap- 
pened in 1(J73? ^ - 

15. What was the first settlement made in JSTew Jersey ? Why was it so called ? 
Give a sketch of its history. 



364 AMEKLCAX HISTORY. [1638. 

provide an asylum for Koman Catholics, who were then 
persecuted in England. It was named Maryland in honor 
of Henrietta Maria, wife of King Charles. The first settle- 
ment was made in 1634, at a place which was called St. 
Mary's, under the direction of Leonard Calvert, brother of 
the proprietor. Free toleration was granted to settlers of 
every Christian denomination. Upon the death of Cecil 
Calvert, his son Charles became proprietor of the province, 
of which he retained possession until deprived of it by King 
William (1691). In 1715, the proprietor's rights were re- 
stored to his infant heir, the fourth Lord Baltimore; and 
Maryland remained a proprietary government till the Rev- 
olution. 

17. Pennsylvania. — Although small settlements had 
been previously made by the Swedes on both sides of the 
Delaware River, the permanent settlement of Pennsylvania 
dates from the founding of Philadelphia, in 1682, by Wil- 
liam Penn, a distinguished Quaker. Penn had obtained a 
grant of the country from Charles II., with a view to found 
a colony where civil and religious liberty might be enjoyed, 
and where the people might dwell together in peace. His 
conduct toward both the Indians and the Swedish settlers 
was characterized by remarkable uprightness. With the for- 
mer he made a treaty, and paid them for their lands ; to the 
latter he gave assurances of protection in every civil and 
religious right. His descendants continued to administer 
the government till the Revolution. 

18. Delaware. — This territory was first settled by 
Swedes, in 1638, and named New Siveden. Subsequently, 
Governor Stuyvesant subjected it to the authority of Hol- 
land (1655), to which it continued to belong till 1664, when 
it became the property of the Duke of York. By him it 



1 6. What account is given of the settlement of Maryland ? What was granted 
to all settlers ? Give the subsequent history of the colony. 

1 7. By whom and where was Pennsylvania first settled ? Who was William 
Penn ? What course did he pursue ? What else is related of this colony ? 

18. Give a brief sketch of the early history of Delaware. 



1605.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 365 



was granted to William Penn, under the name of " The 
Territories ;" and continued to be connected with Pennsyl- 
vania, although haying a separate Assembly, until the 
Eevolution. 

19. North and South Carolina. — The first perma- 
nent settlement in this tract was made in 1650, by emi- 
grants from Virginia, who settled near the present Tillage 
of E' den-ton. In 1670, a colony was planted on the western 
bank of the Ashley River ; but was soon after removed to 
the present site of Charleston. In 1729, Carolina was sold 
to the king of England, and separated into North and 
South Carolina. Prom that time they were royal provinces 
till the Revolution. 

20. Georgia. — This part of the country was granted by 
the English king, George II., to General Oglethorpe (o'gl- 
thorp) and others, who desired to provide an asylum for 
their destitute countrymen. In honor of the king it was 
called Georgia. The first settlement was made in 1733, at 
Savannah. Oglethorpe defended the settlers against the 
hostile attacks of their Spanish neighbors ; but the people, 
afterward, becoming dissatisfied with the government of 
the trustees, the latter relinquished their rights to the 
crown, and Georgia became a royal province (1752). 

21. French Colonies. — The first permanent Erench 
settlement in America was made by De Monts (da mong) 
a wealthy Huguenot, who, having obtained a grant from 
the Erench king, Henry IV., of an extensive region in the 
vicinity of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, planted a settlement 
on the present site of An-nap'o-lis, Nova Scotia (1605). 
To this place he gave the name of Port Royal, and to the 
whole territory that of A-ca'di-a. At the close of the "War 
of the Spanish Succession (called in American history 
Queen Anne's War), this region, including Nova Scotia, 

19. What account is given of the settlement of North and South Carolina ? 

20. What led to the settlement of Georgia ? Give its subsequent history. 

21. What was the first permanent French settlement? How was it mad© 
Give the subsequent history of Acadia and Port Royal. 



366 AMERICAN HISTOKY. [1500. 

New Brunswick, and some of the adjacent islands, was 
given up to the English by the treaty of Utrecht (1713). 
Port Eoyal was then named, in honor of Queen Anne, An- 
napolis . 

22. Canada, originally called New France, was first perma- 
nently settled at Quebec, by the Erench, under Champlain, 
in 1608 ; and continued in their possession until 1760, when, 
by the successful expedition of General Wolfe, in the pre- 
vious year, it was surrendered to the English, whose pos- 
session of it was confirmed by the treaty of Paris (1763). 
By this treaty, the Erench ceded to Great Britain nearly all 
her American possessions east of the Mississippi Eiver, and 
thus put an end to those boundary disputes, about which 
the war, called the " French and Indian War," had been 
waged for more than six years (1754-60). 

23. Louisiana was visited by La Salle, who discovered 
the mouth of the Mississippi River in 1691 ; and an unsuc- 
cessful attempt at settlement was made by Tber-ville, in 
1699. It was named after Louis XIV., who made a grant 
of it in 1712 ; and was subsequently purchased by the Mis- 
sissippi company of John Law, after whose failure it was 
restored to the crown. In 1762, it became the property of 
Spain, by which it was retained until 1800, when it was 
given back to the Erench government, then under the con- 
trol of Napoleon. Louisiana at that time comprised nearly 
all the territory included between the Mississippi River and 
the Rocky Mountains; and, in 1803, this immense tract 
was ceded by Erance to the United States for $15,000,000. 

24. Discovery and Colonization in South Amer- 
ica. — In 1500, Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, reached the 
coast of Brazil, and took possession of the country for the 
crown of Portugal, although it had been visited by one of 

22. When and by whom was Canada settled ? How and when was it conquered 
by the British ? 

23. What is said of the early history of Louisiana? Why was it so called ? 
Give its subsequent history. What was its extent ? 

24. What is said of the discovery of Brazil ? Of the Amazon River ? 



PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 8. 




1541.] AMEBIC AN HISTORY. 3G7 

the companions of Columbus a short time previously. Set- 
tlements were afterward made along the coast by the Por- 
tuguese, in whose possession the country continued until 
its independence was acknowledged in 1825. The Amazon 
River was first explored by a Spaniard, named Orellana 
(p-rel-y ah' nah), in 1539. 

25. In 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the ser- 
vice of Spain, having discovered the strait which now bears 
his name, crossed the Pacific Ocean (so named by him), 
but was killed at one of the Philippine Islands. The voy- 
age was, however, continued after his death ; and one of 
the ships reached Spain by the Cape of Good Hope, — thus 
completing the first voyage ever made round the world 
(1522). 

26. In 1513, a Spaniard named Bal-lo'a crossed the 
Isthmus of Darien, and obtained a view of the ocean lying 
beyond. He then turned to the southward and penetrated 
many miles into the country. Subsequently, Francisco 
Pi-zar'ro, a brave but cruel leader, who had accompanied 
Balboa in the previous expedition, sailed from Panama with 
a company of less than 200 men, and landed on the western 
coast of Peru — the wealthiest and most powerful state in 
America at the time of its discovery. By means of the 
basest treachery and the most revolting cruelties, Pizarro 
succeeded in effecting the conquest of the country, although 
the unfortunate natives defended their liberties with admi- 
rable spirit and valor (1533). The monster, Pizarro, was 
afterward assassinated (1541). 

27. Peru became, after Pizarro's conquest, the principal 
seat of the Spanish empire in America; and Lima (le'mah), 
its capital, rose to a very high degree of magnificence. It 
received from Pizarro the appellation of the City of the 
Kings. Chili (chil'le), which originally belonged to the 



25. What account is given of Magellan's* voyage ? 

26. What was done by Balboa ? ' By Pizarro ? What is said of Pizarro ? 

27. What account is given of Peru ? Of Lima? Of Chili? 



368 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1824. 

Peruvian empire, was conquered by Almagro and Vah 
div'i-a, two of the successors of Pizarro, the latter of whom 
founded Santiago (sahn-te-ah' go) in 1541. Southern Chili 
was so bravely defended by the Indians, that it resisted for 
centuries the rule of the invaders. 

28. Venezuela (ven-e-zwa'lah) was so called by Vespucci 
and Ojeda {p-lia'dah), the latter one of the companions of 
Columbus, who, near the Lake of Maracaybo (mah-rah-hi'- 
bo), discovered an Indian village built on piles in the water. 
Hence, they named it Venezuela, or Little Venice (1499). 
The interior of the country was not conquered till the mid- 
dle of the next century. The Rio de la Plata was explored 
in 1530, by Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain ; 
and, in 1580, the city of Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz) was 
founded by the Spaniards. 

29. Thus, nearly all South America, except Brazil, fell 
into the possession of Spain, and was retained under her 
rule until the beginning of the present century, when, by 
a series of revolutions, commencing in Chili, this extensive 
region was wrested from her, and formed into independent 
states. Peru was the last to secure her independence, which, 
was acknowledged in 182(5. 

30. The most prominent individual connected with these 
movements was the patriot Bol'i-var, in honor of whom 
the republic of Bo-liv'i-a received its name. Nine states 
now occupy the territory formerly included in the severah 
Spanish viceroyalties of South America: Peru, Bolivia, 
Ecuador {ek-ivali-dore), Go-lorn' bia, Venezuela, Chili, TJie 
Argentine Republic, Paraguay (pah-rah-gwi'), and Uru- 
guay (oo-roo-gioi'). These states, since their formation, 
have been under republican governments, but have been 
very much disturbed by internal dissensions and civil war. 



28. What is said of Venezuela ? Of the Rio de la Plata ? Buenos Ayres ? 

29. How long did these territories remain under the Spanish government? 
When did Peru become independent ? 

30. Who was Bolivar ? What states were formed '? What is said of them J 



1773.] amebic an histoky. 369 

The United States. 

31. The expenses which Great Britain had incurred in 
the French and Indian War greatly increased her national 
debt; and the British ministry, asserting that this had 
been done in defending their American possessions, pro- 
posed to lessen the burden by taxing the colonies. In pur- 
suance of this proposition, the Stamp Act was passed in 
1765; the effect of which was to excite a great storm of 
indignation throughout the colonies, the people of which 
opposed all measures of taxation, on the ground that they 
had no representatives in the British Parliament. 

32. A change having occurred in the British ministry, 
the act was repealed in 1766; but the next year, the at- 
tempt to tax the colonies was renewed, by the passage of 
an act levying duties on glass, paper, tea, etc. This measure 
met with decided opposition from the colonists, particularly 
in Boston, to which General Gage ordered two regiments 
to overawe the inhabitants (1770). This greatly exasper- 
ated the people, and led to the affray called the " Boston 
Massacre," in which the soldiers fired upon the populace, 
killing .three men and wounding others (1770). 

'33. Parliament, wishing to conciliate the people, revoked 
all the duties except that on tea ; but as the people were 
contending for the principle of " no taxation without rep- 
resentation," the concession was without avail. Some of 
the tea sent over was returned ; and no one would purchase 
that which was landed. At Boston, a party of men, dis- 
guised as Indians, boarded the ships, broke open the chests 
of tea, and emptied their contents into the water (1773). 

34. The next year, delegates from all the thirteen colonies, 
except Georgia, met at Philadelphia, and formed the "First 

31. What led to the passage of the Stamp Act ? What was its effect ? 

32. When was it repealed? What other law was passed ? What was the re- 
sult ? What was the " Boston Massacre ?" 

33. What conciliatory measure was adopted by Parliament ? What was its 
effect ? What was done with the tea ? 

31. What body met at Philadelphia ? What were its proceedings ? Who wer« 
the " Minute-men ?" 

16* 



370 AMERICAN HISTOEY. [ITT 5 

Continental Congress." A declaration of rights was then 
adopted, and a suspension of all commercial intercourse 
with Great Britain recommended. Meanwhile, Massachu- 
setts had been preparing for a hostile conflict with the 
mother country, and militia, called " minute-men," were 
trained so as to be ready at a minute's notice. 

35. The Revolutionary War. — The great conflict 
commenced at Lexington (April 19, 1775), where a detach- 
ment of British troops, sent by General Gage to seize the 
American stores at Concord, attacked and dispersed a small 
body of militia collected to oppose them. The stores were 
destroyed, but the British, on their return, were attacked 
by the American militia, in large numbers, and with great 
difficulty made good their retreat to Boston. The patriots 
wishing to prevent the British from assuming offensive op- 
erations, erected fortifications on Breed's Hill, near Boston. 
This brought on a battle, in which the British troops suc- 
ceeded in dislodging the Americans from their position, 
but only after the third attack ; so bravely did the patriot 
militia stand their ground. This conflict is known in his- 
tory as the "Battle of Bunker Hill" (June 17, 1775). 

36. Meanwhile, a general Congress of the thirteen coIo.t 
nies, in session at Philadelphia, resolved on war ; and, hav- 
ing decided to raise an army of 20,000 men, elected George 
Washington, one of the delegates from Virginia, commander^ 
in-chief (June 15). This illustrious man was born in Vir- 
ginia, February 22d, 1732, and consequently was in his 
44th year when he received this appointment. He had pre- 
viously gained great distinction as a military commander 
in the French and Indian War; while his patriotism, 
prudence, and sterling worth of character, commended him 
to the universal confidence of his countrymen. 

37. In order to prevent the use of Canada by the British 

35. Where and when did the Revolutionary War commence ? Describe the battle 
of Lexington. The battle of Bunker or Breed's Hill. 

36. What was done by Congress? Where and when was Washington born? 
What is said of him ? 



1776.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 371 

as a place of rendezvous and supply, Generals Montgomery 
and Benedict Arnold were sent by different routes to attack, 
and, if possible, take Quebec. The assault was made, but 
failed, Montgomery being slain, and Arnold severely wound- 
ed (Dec. 31, 1775). By erecting fortifications on Dorchester 
Heights, near Boston, Washington compelled the British 
to evacuate this city (March 17, 1776) ; after which an un- 
successful attack was made by the latter upon Charleston, 
South Carolina (June 28), which was defended by a fort 
of palmetto-wood erected on an island in the harbor, and 
garrisoned by troops under the command of the gallant 
Colonel Moultrie (mole'tre), whose name was afterward 
given to the fort. 

38. This was soon followed by the Declaration of In- 
dependence, adopted by Congress July tth. In the 
mean time, the British had been collecting a large army, 
partly consisting of Hessian mercenaries; and on the 27th 
of August, General Howe, the British commander, attacked 
and defeated the Americans at Brooklyn, Long Island. 
By this victory the British gained possession of New York, 
and soon after succeeded in compelling Washington to 
retreat across the Hudson River and through New Jersey, 
into Pennsylvania. The patriots were greatly dispirited by 
this series of disasters ; but their hopes were revived by a 
bold stroke of Washington, who, early on! the morning 
after Christmas day, crossed the Delaware, and suddenly 
attacking a body of Hessians stationed at Trenton, com- 
pelled them to surrender (Dec. 26). 

39. The next year General Howe, failing to draw Wash- 
ington into an engagement in New Jersey, conveyed his 
troops, by means of the fleet of his brother, Lord Howe, to 



37. Give an account of the expedition to Canada. What led to the evacuation 
cf Boston ? What city was next attacked ? How was it defended ? 

38. What occurred July 4th? What account is given of the battle of Long 
Island ? What was the result ? What led to the battle of Trenton ? 

39. What led to the battle of Chad's Ford? What was its result? Where ia 
Chad's Ford? (Map, p. 372.). Where did Washington attack the British, and witt 
what result ? 



372 



AMERICAN" HISTORY. 



[1777 



Chesapeake Bay, at the head of which they disembarked, 
and marched toward Philadelphia. At Chad's Ford, on 
Brandy wine Creek, their passage was disputed by Wash- 
ington ; but the latter was defeated with considerable loss 
(Sept. 11, 1777). Two weeks afterward, Philadelphia fell 



TIPPER PART 




into the hands ef the British. On the 4th of October fol- 
lowing, Washington made a vigorous attack on the British 
army stationed at Germantown, near Philadelphia; but, 
although at first successful, he was finally repulsed. 

40. In the mean time, General Burgoyne, with an army 
of ten thousand men, British and German troops, Canadians 
and Indians, invaded the State of New York from Canada, 
with the design of effecting a junction with another army 
from the city of New York, so as to cut off Washington's 
communication with the Eastern States. At first, Burgoyne 

40. Give an account of Burgoyne's invasion. Where was he defeated ? What 
followed ? 



1779.] AMEKICAK HISTOKT. 373 

met with some success, capturing Ticonderoga, and com- 
pelling the American forces to retreat to the Mohawk ; but 
a detachment of his army having been defeated at Benning- 
ton (August 16), the Americans, under General Gates, ad- 
vanced to Bem'is Heights, where a severe battle was fought, 
by which Burgoyne found his march to Albany effectually 
checked (Sept. 19). A few weeks afterward, a second bat- 
tle occurred near the scene of the previous one, and the 
British were driven back (Oct. 7). In this battle, called 
the Battle of Saratoga, Benedict Arnold, who afterward 
turned traitor, greatly distinguished himself. It was soon 
followed by the surrender of Burgoyne to General Gates, at 
Saratoga (Oct. 17). 

41. Benjamin Franklin and others had, in 1776, been 
sent to France to solicit aid, and this brilliant success at 
Saratoga decided the negotiations then set on foot. 
France acknowledged the independence of the United 
States ; and an alliance was concluded between the two 
nations, in pursuance of which a French fleet was sent to 
assist the Americans (April, 1778). The British, under 
the command of General Clinton, evacuated Philadelphia ; 
and on their retreat through New Jersey, were attacked by 
"Washington at Monmouth, where a protracted but indecisive 
engagement took place (June 28, 1778). This year, to 
compensate for their loss of Philadelphia, the British took 
Savannah. 

42. With the aid of the French fleet, the Americans, 
under General Lincoln, made a vigorous effort to regain 
possession of Savannah, but were repulsed with great loss, 
the gallant Polish officer, Count Pulaski, being among the 
slain (Oct. 9, 1779). The next year, the Americans expe- 
rienced another severe disaster in the loss of Charleston, 



41 . How was the alliance with France brought about ? What led to the battle 
of Monmouth ? What was the result ? What city was taken ? 

42. Where were the French and Americans defeated? Who was slain ? When 
and how was Charleston taken ? What was the result ? What partisan leaders 
distinguished themselves ? 



374 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1781. 

which was captured by General Clinton, after a long siege 
(May 12). General Lincoln and six thousand prisoners, 
thus fell into the hands of the enemy. This victory vir- 
tually delivered South Carolina to the British ; but the 
brave partisan leaders, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and 
others, carried on a harassing warfare against them, and 
thus kept alive the spirit of freedom in the South. 

43. General Gates, appointed to succeed Lincoln, having 
allowed himself to be disastrously defeated by the British 
general, Corntvattis, near Camden (Aug. 16, 1780), Wash- 
ington sent General Greene to the South, . to check the 
progress of the enemy. This officer, by his skilful general- 
ship, obtained considerable advantage over the British ; 
and, although not absolutely victorious in the battles that 
were fought, he succeeded in greatly impairing the strength 
of the enemy (1781). 

44. Cornwallis having retreated into Virginia, occupied 
YorMoivn, where he was attacked by the combined French 
and American forces, while a French fleet, under Count de 
Grasse (gras), blockaded the city by water. After a severe 
cannonade of two days, Cornwallis was compelled to sur- 
render his entire army prisoners of war (Oct. 19, 1781). 
This brilliant victory virtually ended the war, and was the 
cause of great rejoicing throughout the country. Great 
Britain was obliged to suspend hostilities ; and on the 3d 
of September, 1783, acknowledged the independence of the 
United States. 

45. In 1781, the permanent union of the states was ef- 
fected by the ratification of the Articles of Confedera- 
tion ; but the general government thus established was 
soon found to be very inefficient, Congress having no 
power to raise money and pay the debts incurred by the 

43. Where was Gates defeated ? Who succeeded him in the command ? What 
was done by General Greene? 

44. What led to the surrender of Cornwallis ? What was the result ? 

45. What was done in 1781 ? What led to the adoption of the Constitution ? 
When and how did it go into operation ? 



PROGRESSIVE MAPS, N? 9. 



Lcrn§. from. 32 Greenwich. 




QEast of the Mississippi 

m tie cms t^kmomwm 

_j_ ! . i , 

15 Lon£. iroin WaslVgt'n. lo 



1800.] AMERICAN HISTOEY. 375 



war. Accordingly, a national convention was held at 
Philadelphia, with Washington as president; and after 
four months' deliberation, the Constitution was adopted 
(Sept. 17, 1787). After being ratified by eleven of the 
thirteen states, though not without great opposition, it 
went into operation ; and Washington was inaugurated the 
first President of the United States, at New York (April 
•30, 1789). 

46. Washington's Administration.— (1789-1797.)— 
Through the judicious management of Alexander Hamil- 
ton, Secretary of the Treasury, the public finances' were 
soon placed in a good condition, and the credit of the 
country was established. Rhode Island and North Carolina 
joined their sister states in the union ; and Vermont, the 
first new state, was admitted (1791). Two other states 
were also admitted, during this administration — Kentucky 
(1792) and Tennessee (1796). The Indians north of the 
Ohio were reduced to submission by the victory at the 
Mau-mee', gained by General Wayne (1794). 

47. John Adams's Administration. (1797-1801.) 
— Washington having declined a nomination for a third 
term, John Adams was elected to succeed him. The neu- 
tral position taken by the United States in the war between 
England and France, gave great offence to the French 
Directory; and war being threatened, defensive measures 
were adopted, Washington again receiving the appointment 
of commander-in-chief. Hostilities, however, had scarcely 
commenced, when a treaty of peace was negotiated with 
Napoleon Bonaparte, who had become First Consul (1800). 
Washington died the year previous at Mt. Vernon (Dec. 14, 
1799). In 1800, the capital was removed from Philadelphia 
to the city of Washington. 

48. Jefferson's Administration. (1801-1809.) — 

46. By whom was the financial condition of the country improved? What 
were the other events of Washington's administration ? 

47. What events of interest occurred during Adams's administration ? Where 
was the capital located ? 



376 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1812. 

Ohio, the seventeenth state, was admitted in 1802 ; and 
the French province of Louisiana, a vast region extending 
from the Mississippi Eiver to the Bocky Mountains, was 
bought from France for fifteen millions of dollars (1803).* 
The United States, by this purchase, secured the free nav- 
igation of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. During 
the wars waged by the European powers against Napoleon, 
the foreign commerce of the United States suffered greatly 
in consequence of the French emperor's " Continental 
System," and the blockade of France by the fleets of Great 
Britain. The latter also claimed the right to search Amer- 
ican vessels, and impress all sailors of English birth found 
on board; and, in pursuance of this claim, the frigate 
Chesapeake was fired into and boarded, and four alleged 
deserters from British service, three of whom, it was after- 
ward proved, were Americans, were seized (1807). 

49. Madison's Administration. (1809-1817.) — 
This outrage and others of a similar character, finally in- 
duced Congress to declare war against Great Britain (1812). 
The year before, the important victory of Tip-pe-ca-noe' 
was gained over the hostile Indians of the northwest by 
General Harrison. These Indians, incited by British 
emissaries, and led on by the noted chief Te-cum'seh, had 
begun to form a formidable confederacy; and, in the ensu- 
ing war, they fought on the side of the British. The first 
year of the war (1812) was characterized by disasters to the 
Americans, on land ; the whole of Michigan Territory being 
lost by the surrender of General Hull, at Detroit (August 
16). On the ocean, however, several brilliant victories, 
gained by Captain Hull, Commodore Decatur, and others, 
retrieved the honor of the country. 

* The Western limits were not clearly defined. The United States government afterward 
claimed to the Pacific. 



48. Who succeeded Adams? How long was he in office? What state was 
admitted? What territory was purchased? What injured the commerce of the 
country ? What caused difficulty with Great Britain ? 

49. When was war declared ?" What victory was gained by Harrison ? What ia 
said of the year 1812 ? 



1814.] 



AMERI6AK HISTORY. 



37? 



50. In 1813, Commodore Perry gained a splendid victory 
on Lake Erie, over a British fleet, every vessel of which 
was compelled to surrender (September 10). His dispatch 
to General Harrison contained the well-known words, "We 
have met the enemy, and they are ours." This event was 

soon followed by the 
Battle of the TJiames, 




in which Harrison 
entirely defeated the 
British under Proctor, 
and the Indians under 
Tecumseh, the latter 
being shot in the 
engagement (October 
5). By these victo- 
ries, Michigan Terri- 
tory was recovered, 
and the war on the 
western frontier ter- 
minated. 

51. The year 1814 is 
memorable for the de- 
feat of the British at Cldpjjetva (chip'pe-iuaiv) and Lundy's 
Lane, near Niagara Falls (July 5 and 25), in the latter of 
which battles General Scott, afterward so famous, particu- 
larly distinguished himself. Meanwhile, Geiteral Jackson 
had subdued the hostile Indians in Alabama ; and had taken 
Peusacola, a Spanish port, the authorities of the town hav- 
ing allowed the British to fit out expeditions there against 
the United States. The principal disaster of this year was 
the capture of the city of Washington by a force under 
General Ross (August 24). The capitol, with its library, 
the president's house, and other buildings, were burned, 

50. What victory was gained by Perry? By Harrison? What was the effect 
of these victories? 

o 1 . For what is 1814 memorable ? Where are Chippewa and Lundy's Lane ? (See 
Map.) What was done by Jackson ? What disaster occurred? What was the result ? 



878 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1821 

tmd the British then hastily retreated. An unsuccessful 
attempt was made soon afterward to take Baltimore. 

52. One of the most important events of the war was the 
xepulse, by General Jackson, of a large force of the British 
at New Orleans, where 2,000 of the British, including their 
commander, General Pakenliam (pah'n-am), were slain 
(January 8, 1815). The next month, the joyful tidings 
reached the United States that a treaty of peace had been 
signed at Ghent in December of the previous year, the 
great European war having been concluded by the fall of 
Napoleon. The points of dispute between the United 
States and Great Britain were, however, left undecided. 
The other important events of this administration were a 
successful expedition against Algiers, by Commodore De- 
catur, and the admission of two new States (Louisiana, in 
1812, and Indiana, in 1816). 

53. Monroe's Administration (1817-1825).— Mad- 
ison's successor in the presidency was James Monroe, of 
Virginia, in the first year of whose administration, General 
Jackson was sent to repress the hostile attacks of the Sem~ 
inoles (sem'i-nolz), a tribe of Indians living in Florida. 
Finding that the savages had been instigated to their hos- 
tilities by persons in Florida, Jackson marched into that 
province and seized the fort at St. Marks, and the city of 
Pensacola. This having led to difficulties with Spain, the 
latter finally ceded Florida to the United States (1821). 

54. Five new states were admitted during this adminis- 
tration : Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), 
Maine (1820), and Missouri (1821). A very exciting con- 
troversy preceded the admission of Missouri, the states of 
the North opposing its admission as a slave-state, while 
those of the South desired such admission. At length a bill 



52. Give an account of the battle of New Orleans. When was peace made? 
What did it fail to decide ? What other events occurred ? 

53. Who succeeded Madison ? What led to the acquisition of Florida ? 

51. What new states were admitted ? What was the " Missouri Compromise ?" 
What other events occurred ? What is meant by the " Monroe doctrine ?" 



1837.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 379 

known as the " Missouri Compromise" was passed, by which 
it was declared that, with the exception of Missouri, slavery 
should be prohibited in the territory north of the parallel 
30° 30', and west of the Mississippi. The independence of 
the South American republics was acknowledged by the 
United States government ; and in 1823 Monroe declared 
that the American continents "are henceforth not to be 
considered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European power." ' This is known as the " Monroe 
Doctrine." 

55. John Quincy Adams's Administration 
(1825-9.)— This administration was one of peace, and under 
it the nation made rapid increase in population and wealth. 
On the fiftieth anniversary of American independence, by a 
singular coincidence, occurred the deaths of the two ven- 
erable ex-presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson 
(July 4th, 1826). Adams was succeeded by Andrew Jack- 
son, of Tennessee. 

56. Jackson's Administration (1829-1837) was char- 
acterized by great vigor and resolution. He vetoed the bill 
to recharter the United States Bank ; and when the people 
of South Carolina, dissatisfied with the tariff law of 1828, 
refused to obey it, and threatened to secede from the 
Union, he issued a proclamation declaring that the military 
power of the government would be called into requisition to 
enforce the laws. A " compromise bill," subsequently passed 
by Congress, restored quiet. The attempt to remove the 
Seminoles from Florida to lands west of the Mississippi was 
met with determined opposition by many of the tribe under 
their chief, Osceola (os-e-o'lah) ; and a fierce war ensued, 
which lasted for several years. Osceola was finally seized, 
and sent to Fort Moultrie (1837), and the Indians, two 
months afterward, were entirely defeated by Col. Zacliary 

55. What is said of John Q. Adams's administration? What interesting coin- 
cidence is referred to ? By whom was Adams succeeded ? 

56. What was the character of Jackson's administration ? What measures did 
he adopt ? What war broke out ? Describe it. 



380 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 



[1845 



Taylor. Their hostilities, however, were not entirely repressed 
till 1842. 

57. Van Buren's Administration (1837-1841).— 
Jackson was succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van Bu- 
ren, of New York. His term of four years is chiefly memora- 
ble for a disastrous monetary revulsion, by which commerce 
and manufactures were prostrated, and the mercantile classes 
of the people were involved in general bankruptcy (1837). 
The Canadian rebellion enlisted the sympathies and engaged 
the active co-operation of many of the citizens of the United 
States ; but a proclamation issued by the president was 
successful in preventing any improper interference in the 
affairs of Canada. 

58. Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations 
(1841-1845). — Van Buren's successor in office was William 
Henry Harrison, the "hero of Tippecanoe and the Thames;" 

but the new president 




IATX OIL'S 

CAM PAI 6N 

Scale 

— j^-4 > 1 1 — L I — t 

30 50 SO 100 



59. Polk's Administration 



died just one month 
after his inaugura- 
tion, and the vice- 
president, John Tyler, 
became president. — 
Texas, which had re- 
volted from Mexico, 
and set up a gov- 
ernment of its own 
(1836), applied to be 
annexed to the United 
States ; and three days 
before the expiration 
of his term of office, 
the president signed a 
bill for its annexation. 
(1845-1849).— Tyler's 



5 7. What is related of Van Buren's administration ? 

58. Who succeeded Van Buren ? How did Tyler become President ? What is 
related of Texas i 



1847.1 



AMEEICAN HISTOEY. 



381 



successor in office was James K. Polk. On the fourth of 
July, 1845, the legislature of Texas haying approved 
the " annexation bill" passed by Congress, Texas be- 
came one of the United States. This led to a war with 
Mexico, she not haying acknowledged the independence 
of her revolted province. Hostilities were commenced in 
1846, near the Eio Grande (re'o gralm'dd), to which General 
Taylor had been sent to protect the new state from Mexican 
invasion. Having defeated the Mexicans in two battles, 
he took possession of Mat-a-mo'ras, and marching to the 
strongly fortified city of Monterey (mon-ta-ra') compelled it 
to capitulate (Sept. 24). 

60. In another expedition under Gen. Kearny (kar'ne), 
the Americans gained possession of JSTew Mexico ; and a 
party under Captain Fre-mont', entered California, and 
defeated the Mexicans in several skirmishes. The conquest 
of this important territory was afterward completed by 
means of the fleet 
under Commodores 



Slote and Stockton, 
assisted by Fremont 
and General Kearny 
(1847). Taylor's last 
engagement in Mex- 
ico was the battle of 
Buena Vista (bica'nah 
vees'tali), in which he 
defeated an army 
under Santa Anna 
nearly four times as 
numerous as his own, 
driving the Mexicans 
in disorder from the 
field (Feb. 23, 1847). 




SCOTT'S 
CAMPAIGN 



59. Who succeeded Tyler ? What caused a war with Mexico ? How were hos- 
tilities commenced ? What was done by Taylor ? 

60. How was California conquered ? What occurred at Buena Vista ? 



382 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1853. 

61. With a view to " conquer a peace," General Scott was 
ordered to proceed against the capital of Mexico (1847). 
Landing his army near Vera Cruz, he, with the aid of the 
fleet, compelled this strongly fortified city to surrender, and 
then marched into the interior. Having defeated Santa 
Anna at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo (sdr'ro gov' do), 
and captured in succession all the strong posts by which 
the capital was defended, Scott entered it in triumph (Sept. 
14). On the second of February following, a treaty of peace 
was signed, by which all the territory north of the Rio 
Grande, together with the whole of New Mexico and 
California, was relinquished to the United States, the 
latter agreeing to pay to Mexico $15,000,000, and to 
assume her debts to American citizens, to the amount of 
$3,000,000. 

62. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations 
(1849-1853). — Polk was succeeded by Zachary Taylor, the 
hero who had achieved such brilliant victories in the war 
with Mexico. Gold having been discovered in California, 
thousands of emigrants from all parts of the world rushed 
thither ; and so rapidly did the territory become populated, 
that in the fall of 1849 it contained a sufficient number of 
settlers to constitute a state, and, accordingly, applied for 
admission. The application met with violent opposition 
from the southern states, because the constitution of the 
proposed state excluded slavery ; but a compromise having 
been effected through the efforts of Henry Clay, California 
was admitted as a free state (1850). Meantime, General 
Taylor died (July 9, 1850), and was succeeded by the vice- 
president, Millard Fillmore. 

63. Pierce's Administration (1853-1857). — During 
the administration of Franklin Pierce, the successor of 

61. Give an account of Scott's expedition. What was the result ? 

62. Who succeeded Polk ? What occurred in California ? Why was its admis- 
sion opposed ? How and when was it admitted ? How and when did Fillmore 
become "President ? 

63. What controversy was continued during Pierce's administration? What 
again excited the slavery question ? 



I860.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 383 

Fillmore, the controversy between the slaveholding and 
non-slayeholding sections of the Union was renewed, the 
one being in favor of, and the other opposed to, the exten- 
sion of slavery into the territories. This question, supposed 
to have been settled by the compromise of 1850, was again 
excited by the passage of a bill for the organization of 
Kansas and Nebraska as territories, the bill containing a 
clause by which the " Missouri Compromise" was repealed, 
and the question of permitting or excluding slavery was 
left to be determined by the inhabitants of the territories 
(1854). 

64. No sooner had the bill passed, than emigrants from 
both sections of the Union began to pour into Kansas, 
those from the North being determined to make it a free 
state, while those from the South were equally resolved 
that slavery should be permitted within it. With such 
undue zeal was this strife maintained, that frequent colli- 
sions took place, in which blood was shed. While these 
things were in progress, Pierce was succeeded in office by 
James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. 

65. Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861).— 
The slavery question continued to be the prominent topic 
of discussion during this administration ; and the feeling 
of opposition prevailing in the South against the North, 
was greatly intensified by "John Brown's raid," — an attempt, 
by seizing the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, to capture and 
liberate a large number of slaves. The undertaking failed ; 
and several of those engaged in it, including Brown him- 
self, were tried and hung. Kansas was not admitted until 
1861, when it came in as a free state. 

66. The election, in the fall of 1860, of Abraham Lincoln, 



64. What led to civil war in Kansas ? Who succeeded Pierce ? 

65. What question was continued ? How were the bitter feelings of the South 
intensified? What was "John Brown's raid?" What was its result? When 
was Kansas admitted ? 

66. What caused a violent outbreak at the South ? What was done at Charles- 
ton ? What events followed this ? What property was seized by the insurgents ? 
What forts were retained by the government ? 



384 



AMERICAN" HISTORY. 



[1349. 




1861.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 385 

the candidate of the Bepublicans (the party opposed to the 
further extension of slavery), occasioned a violent outbreak 
in the South; and in South Carolina, a convention was 
called, which met at Charleston, and passed an ordinance 
declaring that the State had seceded from the Union (Dec. 
20). This was soon followed by the passage of similar 
secession ordinances in six other states : Mississippi, Flor- 
ida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas ; and a con- 
gress of delegates from the insurgent states met at Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, and having adopted a constitution, 
assumed the title of the " Confederate States of America," 
and elected Jefferson Davis, president (Feb. 9). Forts, ar- 
senals, navy-yards, and other property belonging to the 
general government, within frhe Confederate states, were 
seized, Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Fort Sumter, near 
Charleston, and Fortress Monroe, near the entrance to 
Chesapeake Bay, being nearly all that remained to the 
United States. 

67. Lincoln's Administration. — The Great Civil 
War. (1861-1865.) — In this sad and distracted condi- 
tion were the affairs of the country when Lincoln en- 
tered upon the office of president. One of the first acts 
of the Confederates, after his inauguration, was the bom- 
bardment and capture of Fort Sumter ; and this was soon 
followed by the passage of secession ordinances in Virginia, 
Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina. The excite- 
ment consequent upon these events throughout the North, 
was intense. Troops were at once called for by the presi- 
dent; and a large army was soon collected near Wash- 
ington, under General Scott, to oppose the Confederate 
army stationed at Manassas Junction, a few miles distant. 
Near this spot, on the 21st day of July, occurred the first 
great conflict of the war — the battle of Bull Run, in which 



67. How was the war of the rebellion brought on? What led to the battle of 
Bull Run ? What was its result ? 

17 



386 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1862. 

the Union forces were defeated, and fled panic-stricken 
from the field. 

68. General McClellan was then called to take the chief 
command; and an immense army was collected at Wash- 
ington, with the purpose of invading Virginia, and cap- 
turing Eichmond, the capital of the Confederate States. 
This army did not set out until April, 1862. Meanwhile 
an active warfare had been carried on in Missouri, with 
varying success; the Federal navy had been greatly in- 
creased and strengthened; and by means of it, strong 
positions in North and South Carolina were wrested from 
the Confederates. The capture of Roanoke Island, and of 
Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, still further strengthened 
the Union cause. 

69. The remarkable victory gained by the " Monitor" 
over the powerful ram, Virginia, near Norfolk ; the victo- 
ries of General Pope on the Mississippi ; and the capture, 
by General Grant, of Forts Henry and Donelson, on the 
Cumberland and Tennessee Eivers, were important events 
of the winter of 1861-2 and the following spring. The 
taking of New Orleans by the fleet under Far'ra-gut and 
Porter, aided by a military force under General Butler, was 
a still more valuable conquest (April 25). 

70. These great victories were counterbalanced by the 
ill success of McClellan, who had attempted to reach Eich- 
mond by the peninsula between the York and James Eivers. 
Having arrived within a short distance of the city, he was 
suddenly attacked by the Confederates at Fair Oaks, where 
a bloody, but indecisive contest took place (May 31). A 
movement of McClellan's to change his base of operations 
to the James Eiver, brought on a series of destructive bat- 
tles, lasting through seven days (June 25-July 1), the re- 

68. Who took the command? What was collected ? For what purpose ? What 
eveuts occurred in the West and South ? 

69. What other important events occurred during the winter of 1861-2 and the 
following spring ? What important city was captured ? How ? 

70. What was done hy McClellan ? Where was a great battle fought? What 
was its result ? What battles followed ? 



1863.] AMERICAN" HISTORY. 38? 

suit of which was to leave the Union army in a very weak- 
ened condition. 

71. Taking advantage of this, the Confederates, under 
General Lee, marched toward Washington ; but were con - 
fronted by the armies of Gen. Banks and Gen. Pope. These 
were defeated, the latter in the Second Battle of Bull Run 
(Aug. 29th and 30th) ; and Lee crossed the Potomac intc 
Maryland. Meanwhile, McClellan had been recalled from 
the James ; and having assumed the command of the army 
in Maryland, defeated the Confederate general, Lee, in the 
great battle of Antietam (an-te'tam) (Sept. 17). Lee al 
once retreated across the Potomac ; but McClellan made 
no pursuit, and in November was superseded by Burnside. 

72. A dreadful repulse of the Union army at Fredericks- 
burg soon followed (Dec. 13) ; and Burnside, at his own 
request, was superseded by Gen. Hooker. The latter, how- 
ever, was defeated in the great battle of Chancellor sville 
(May 2d and 3d, 1863), which was followed by another in- 
vasion by the Confederate army under Lee, who at this 
time penetrated into Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, how- 
ever, a dreadful conflict of three days occurred (July 1st, 
2d, and 3d), the result of which was, that Lee was com- 
pelled to retreat. 

73. In the mean time, General Grant having gained a 
series of victories over the Confederate forces ■ in the south- 
west, succeeded in taking Vichsburg, after a siege of several 
months (July 4) ; and Port Hudson having soon afterward 
surrendered to Gen. Banks, the Mississippi was completely 
opened. Gen. Rosecrans {roz'hrants), who, in the begin- 
ning of the year, had gained an important victory over a 
large Confederate army, under Gen. Bragg, at Mur'frees- 
bo-ro (Jan. 2, 1863), was attacked near Cliick-a-mau 'ga 

71 . What was then done by General Lee ? What victories did he gain ? Where 
was he defeated ? By whom was McClellan superseded ? 

72. What disasters ensued ? Where was Lee defeated ? With what result ? 

73. How was the Mississippi opened? What victory did Rosecrans gain? 
Where was he defeated ? How was Bragg driven into Georgia ? 



388 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1865. 

Greek by Bragg, and compelled to fall back (Sept. 20) 
The timely arrival of Hooker and Grant, the latter of 
whom took the command, enabled the Union army to gain 
a decided victory, after a three days' conflict; and Bragg 
was driven back into Georgia (Nov. 25). 

74. G-en. Grant, having been appointed commander-in- 
chief of all the armies of the Union, arranged, in the 
spring of 1864, two campaigns — one against Richmond, 
under his own direction, and the other against Atlanta, 
under General Sherman. The latter, by a series of masterly 
movements, compelled the Confederates to retreat, and 
finally succeeded in taking Atlanta (Sept. 2), which hav- 
ing destroyed, he made his memorable march through 
Georgia to the sea-coast, and occupied Savannah (Dec. 21). 
Meanwhile, Gen. Thomas, who had been left by Sherman 
with a considerable force in Tennessee, attacked the Con- 
federate army under Hood, and, after a battle of two days, 
routed it with great slaughter (Dec. 16). 

75. In Virginia, Gen. Grant had in the mean time en- 
countered the Confederate army under Lee ; and after a 
series of terrific battles, compelled it to retreat toward 
Eichmond; but Grant having transferred his army to the 
south bank of the James, Lee, whose movements had been 
conducted with consummate skill, occupied Petersburg, 
and thus compelled the Unionists to lay siege to that city 
(June). This siege lasted until the following April, when, 
by a skilful movement, Grant compelled its evacuation; 
and both Petersburg and Richmond were occupied by the 
nation's victorious troops (April 3, 1865). 

76. Gen. Sheridan, distinguished for his brilliant victo- 
ries over the Confederate forces in the Shenandoah valley, 
was ordered to pursue the retreating army of Lee ; and so 

74. What campaigns were planned in the spring of 1865? What was accom- 
plished hy General Sherman ? By General Thomas ? 

75. Describe Grant's campaign in Virginia. When and how was Richmond 
taken ? 

76. What was done by Sheridan ? By Sherman, after leaving Savannah ? 



1865.] 'AMERICAN HISTORY. 389 

vigorously was the order obeyed, that in less than a week, 
Lee, being overtaken and surrounded, was compelled to 
surrender to Gen. Grant (April 9). Meanwhile, Sherman 
had continued his victorious march from Savannah. Pass- 
ing through South Carolina, he occupied Columbia, com- 
pelled the evacuation of Charleston and Fort Sumter ; and, 
entering North Carolina, defeated the Confederates in two 
battles (March). 

77. The surrender of Lee was soon followed by that of 
the other Confederate generals, and the great civil war was 
at an end, having been brought to a close by the most per- 
severing and gigantic efforts ever put forth by any nation. 
Through all disasters and discouragements, the patriotic 
and high-minded president had resolutely striven to save 
the integrity of the country, and had won the esteem and 
affection of all by his conscientious devotion to this noble 
cause. On the first of January, 1863, he had issued his 
memorable emancipation proclamation, giving freedom to 
all the slaves in the states then in rebellion, excepting 
in such portions as were occupied by the national troops. 
By this more than three millions of slaves were declared 
free. 

78. Having been re-elected president in the fall of 1864, 
he had served but a few weeks of his second term, when, in 
less than one week after Lee's surrender, he was assassinated 
by a desperado acting in sympathy with the Confederate 
cause (April 14). The intelligence of this sad event filled 
every loyal heart throughout the land with sorrow and 
dismay, and for several weeks all the great cities throughout 
the North were draped in badges and emblems of mourning. 
The funeral cortege was followed by hundreds of thousands 
of the citizens of the republic, as it wended its way from 
the capital to Springfield, the former home of the deceased 

77. How did the rebellion end? What is remarked of President Lincoln? 
What proclamation did he issue in January, 1863 ? What was its effect ? 

78. When and by whom was Abraham Lincoln assassinated? What was the 
result ? 



390 AMERICAN" HISTORY. [1869 

president, — thenceforth to be rendered sacred as his burial- 
place. 

79. Johnson's Administration (1865-1869).— 
Andrew Johnson became president by the death of Abraham 
Lincoln, April 15. The assassin of the late president was 
pursued, and refusing to surrender, was shot. Most of his 
accomplices were apprehended, and, after trial, were hung 
Jefferson Davis, president of the late Confederacy, who had 
fled to Georgia, was arrested ; but, after a long confinement 
in Fortress Monroe, was released. A resolution of Congress 
proposing an amendment to the Constitution, abolishing 
slavery, haying been approved by the requisite number 
of states, slavery was declared to be abolished (Dec. 18th, 
1865). At this time the national debt amounted to about 
$2,700,000,000. 

80. Notwithstanding the veto of the president, the " re- 
construction act" was passed, admitting the states recently 
in rebellion to their former participation in the govern- 
ment, on the adoption of republican constitutions, and the 
election, by the suffrages of both white and black citizens, 
of representatives, who had not been concerned in the 
rebellion. Under this law, most of the states have formally 
returned to their allegiance, and are now (1869) represented 
in Congress. During the year 1867, NebrasJcawsLS admitted 
into the Union, and the territorial possessions of the United 
States were increased by the purchase of Eussian America, 
to which the name Alaska was given. In the fall of 1868, 
General Grant and Schuyler Colfax were elected president 
and vice-president, respectively, of the United States. 

79. Who succeeded Liricoln in the presidency ? What was done with the assas- 
sin of the President, and his accomplices ? With Jefferson Davis ? How was 
slavery abolished ? What did the national debt amount to ? 

80. What was the " reconstruction act ?" How was it passed? What were its 
chief provisions ? What nas resulted from it ? What new state was admitted in 
1867 ? What territory was purchased ? Who were elected President aud Vice- 
President in 1868 ? 



1825.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 391 



Mexico. 

81. Mexico was inhabited, previous to the discovery of 
America, by a race called the Aztecs, and had risen to a 
condition of considerable civilization and splendor. It had 
its orators and poets, its sculptors and architects ; and th 
mighty ruins which still greet the traveller amid the 
overgrowing forests, attest the genius and enterprise of its 
inhabitants. As already stated, this great nation was 
subdued by a few Spaniards under Cortez, a bold and un- 
scrupulous leader, and became a Spanish province (1521). 

82. It thus remained for three centuries ; but bitter 
dissensions grew up between the Spaniards and the Creoles 
and mixed races, and the government was frequently 
threatened with insurrection. This was particularly the 
case during the troubles in Spain occasioned by the Penin- 
sular war; but the viceroy succeeded in crushing the various 
chiefs who sprang up, and preserved the government from 
overthrow (1811). 

83. The revolutionary movement, however, soon com- 
menced again ; and Iturbide (e-toor'be-tha) became emperor 
in 1822, but in consequence of a tyrannical abuse of power 
was obliged to abdicate. This was followed by the estab- 
lishment of the independence of Mexico (1824), which was 
soon acknowledged by all the principal foreign nations 
except Spain (1825). A government was then organized 
on the plan of that of the United States; but its benefits 
were entirely prevented by the ceaseless intrigues of the 
military leaders, each ambitious to acquire the supreme 
authority, and constantly plotting revolution to overturn 
the established government. 

81. By whom was Mexico inhabited previous to the discovery of America? 
What is said of the Aztecs ? By whom was Mexico subdued ? 

82. How long did it remain a province of Spain? What dissensions arose? 
When were there insurrections ? How were they subdued ? 

83. Who became emperor in 1822? What followed ? When was the independ- 
ence of Mexico acknowledged by foreign nations ? What government was organ- 
ized ? How were its benefits prevented ? 



392 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1867. 

84. Prominent among these was Santa Anna, whose 
remarkable career presents a singular series of vicissitudes. 
Eepeatedlj made president of dictator, he has as often been 
deposed and driven into exile. During the war with the 
United States (1846-7), he was at the head of the govern- 
ment, and experienced a succession of disastrous defeats, 
resulting in the total prostration of the Mexican republic 
to the power of the United States. 

85. Since his final deposition and banishment in 1855, 
Mexico has been a constant scene of strife and anarchy ; 
and during the cml war waged by the rival chiefs Miramon 
(me'rah-mon) and Juarez (hiuah'rez), such acts of flagrant 
injustice were committed against foreigners, that Great 
Britain, France, and Spain sent fleets into the Gulf of 
Mexico, to enforce satisfaction. The allied forces were 
about to proceed against the capital, when a treaty was 
entered into with the provisional government of Mexico by 
all the allies except France (1862). 

86. In April, 1862, the French emperor declared war 

against Mexico, then under the government of Juarez, and 

having sent a considerable force there, captured Puebla 

(1863), and compelling Juarez to flee, took possession of 

the country. He then invited the Archduke Maximilian, 

brother of the emperor of Austria, to take the imperial 

throne of Mexico, which was accepted in 1864. It was, 

however, soon overturned by an insurrectionary movement 

under Juarez, who, gaining possession of the emperor, 

caused him to be shot (June 19, 1867). Since then, the 

country has continued under the rule of that successful 

popular leader. 

Cektral America. 

87. Central America, like Mexico, was formerly inhabited 

84. Who was prominent among the Mexican leaders? What is said of Santa 
Anna ? 

85. What led to the interference of Great Britain, France, and Spain? What 
treaty was made ? 

86. What was done hy the French emperor? Who was made emperor of 
Mexico ? How and by whom was he deposed ? What followed ? 



1762.] AMEKICAN HISTOET. 393 

by the Aztecs, the massive ruins of whose cities still aston- 
ish the traveller amid its luxuriant tropical forests. It was 
subdued by the Spaniards soon after the conquest of Mexico, 
and remained in their possession until 1821, when it became 
a part of the dominions of the Mexican emperor Iturbide. 
After his fall (1823) the five states of Guatemala (gwah-te- 
mah'lali), Hondu'ras, Nicaragua {nik-a-rah'gwah), San 
Salvador, and Costa Eica (re'TcaTt), formed a federal union, 
with the title of the " United States of Central America." 
In 1839 the union was dissolved, and the states became 
independent republics. Belize (ba-leez'), since 1783, has 
been in the undisputed possession of Great Britain, and 
the Mosquito Kingdom is an independent Indian state 
under British protection. 

The West Indies. 

88. These islands were discovered by Columbus in his 
first voyage (1492), Guanaliani, or San Salvador, being the 
first spot of the new world on which he landed. His dis- 
covery of these islands gave to the Spaniards the exclusive 
right which they claimed to their possession. All the larger 
islands were soon colonized by them ; and such was their 
harsh and cruel treatment of the mild and inoffensive 
aborigines, that the latter soon became almost extinct. 
Their places as slaves were then supplied by the unfortu- 
nate negroes, kidnapped from their homes in Africa. The 
smaller islands, left uninhabited, became places of shelter 
for the pirates, called Buccaneers, who swarmed in the 
Caribbean (car-ib-be' an) Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and 
made navigation subject to great peril and disaster. 

89. Cuba, still in the possession of Spain, was attacked in 
1762 by the British ; and Havana was taken at the point 

87. By whom was Central America formerly inhabited ? By whom was it sub- 
dued ? What happened in 1821 ? In 1823 ? When was the union dissolved ? What 
is said of Belize ? Of the Mosquito kingdom ? 

88. Who discovered the West Indies ? Which of them were colonized by the 
Spaniards ? What was their treatment of the natives ? Who were the Buccaneers ? 

1.* 



394 AMEEICA^ HISTOET. [1803. 

of the bayonet. It was, however, given back the next year 
Sir Francis Drake distinguished himself for several success- 
ful attacks on the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, 
particularly Porto Rico. Jamaica was colonized by the 
Spaniards in 1509 ; and by means of the enforced labor of 
the Indians, and subsequently of the negroes, great quanti- 
ties of sugar, cotton and other rich products, were raised. 
It was taken by an expedition under Admiral Penn and 
Gen. Venables, sent out by Cromwell in 1655. In 1834, the 
slaves were emancipated by the British government, but 
were bound as apprentices to their former masters. In 
1865, a negro insurrection broke out, but was put down by 
the prompt and terribly severe measures of Governor Eyre 
(Ire). 

90. Hayti (ha'tee), or His-yan-i-o'la (Little Spain) was 
discovered by Columbus in 1492, and remained the undis- 
puted property of Spain until 1697, when the western part 
of the island was surrendered to France. The latter part 
attained a high degree of prosperity, while the Spanish set- 
tlements languished and declined. In 1790, the population 
of the island was estimated at 550,000, a large part of whom 
were negro slaves. During the French revolution (1794), 
the negroes found an heroic champion in one of their 
number named ToussaintL' Ouverture (too' sang loo'ver-ture) f 
who contended for a long time, with great success, against 
the white oppressors of his race, finally proclaiming him- 
self Emperor of Hayti, in imitation of Napoleon. At last 
taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to France, and 
was confined in prison, where he died after ten months' 
captivity (1803). 

91. The sad fate of this man, the greatest and noblest 



89. By whom was Cuba attacked in 1762 ? What was done by Drake ? Give a 
eketch of the history of Jamaica. 

90. By whom was Hayti discovered? What happened in 1773? What was the 
population in 1790 ? Give the history of Toussaint L 1 Ouverture. 

91. What is remarked of his fate? When was the Haytien Eepublic estab- 
lished ? The Republic of St. Domingo ? Who was Soulouque ? What title did he 
assume ? When did he abdicate ? 



1859.] AMEEICAN" HISTOEY. 395 

of the negroes mentioned in history, has reflected undying 
disgrace upon Napoleon I., by whom he was thus cruelly 
treated for following his example, but with a much more 
patriotic devotion to his country and his race. After many 
years of trouble (1822), the Haytien Republic was estab- 
lished, to which the Spanish portion of the island was 
annexed. In 1844, the inhabitants of the latter, by a 
successful insurrection, formed themselves into a separate 
republic, under the name of St. Domingo. A few years 
afterward (1849), Soulouque (soo-look'), the president of the 
Haytien republic, made an unsuccessful attempt to subju- 
gate St. Domingo; but the next year he succeeded in 
making himself emperor of Hayti, with the title of Faustin 
I. In 1859, however, he was compelled to abdicate, and the 
republic was restored. 



396 AMERICAN HISTORY. 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 

A. D. 

1492. Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. 

1497. Mainland of North America reached by John Cabot. 

1498. Mainland of South America reached by Columbus. 

1499. Voyage of Vespucci and Ojeda. 

1500. Coast of Brazil reached by Cabral. 

1512. Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. 

1513. Pacific Ocean first seen by Balboa. 
1519-22. Voyage of Magellan. 

1521. Conquest of Mexico by Cortes. 

•1524. Coast of North America explored by Verrazzani. 

1530. Rio de la Plata explored by Sebastian Cabot. 

1533. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 

1534. Gulf and river of St. Lawrence discovered by Cartier. 
1539. Amazon River explored by Orellana. 

1541. Mississippi River discovered by De Soto. 

" Santiago, Chili, founded by Valdivia. 
1565. St. Augustine, Florida, founded by the Spaniards. 
1580. Buenos Ayres founded by the Spaniards. 
1585. First English Colony on the island of Roanoke. 
1605. Port Royal, Acadia, settled by De Monts. 

1607. Virginia (I.) settled at Jamestown by the English. 

1608. Quebec settled by the French under Champlain. 

1609. The Hudson River discovered by the Dutch under Hudson. 
1614. New York (II.) settled by the Dutch at New Amsterdam. 
1620. Massachusetts (III.) settled by the Puritans at Plymouth. 
1623. New Hampshire (IV.) settled by the English. 

1630. Boston settled by the English. 

1633. Connecticut (V.) settled by emigrants from Massachusetts. 

1634. Maryland (VI.) settled by the English Catholics. 
1636. Rhode Island (VII.) settled by Roger Williams. 
1638. Delaware (VIII.) settled by the Swedes. 

1650. North Carolina (IX.) settled by emigrants from Virginia. 
1664. New Netherlands taken by the English. 

" New Jersey (X.) settled by the English at Elizabethtown. 
1670. South Carolina (XI.) settled by the English. 
1682. Pennsylvania (XII.) settled by the Quakers under Penn. 
1691. Mouth of the Mississippi discovered by La Salle. 
1710. Port Royal taken by the English, and named Annapolis. 

1732. George Washington born in Virginia, (February 22). 

1733. Georgia (XIII.) settled by the English at Savannah. 



AMERICAN" HISTORY. 397 

1754 Commencement of the French and Indian War. 
1759. Quebec taken by the English. Death of General Wolfe. 
1763. Treaty of Paris. Canada given up to the English. 
1765. Passage of the Stamp Act. 

1773. The tea thrown overboard at Boston. 

1774. The First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. 

1775. Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. 
" Montgomery slain at Quebec. 

1776. Declaration of American Independence (July 4th). 
" Battles of Long Island and Trenton. 

1777. Battles of Chad's Ford and Germantown. 

" Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga (October 17th). 

1778. American independence acknowledged by France. 
" Battle of Monmouth. 

1779. Repulse of the Americans and French at Savannah. 

1780. Charleston taken by the British. 

" Gates defeated by Cornwallis at Camden. 
" Treason of Benedict Arnold. 

1781. Greene's Campaign in the South. 

" Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (October 19th). 
1783. Independence of U. S. acknowledged by Great Britain. 
1787. Constitution of U. S. adopted by the Convention at Phila- 
delphia. 
1789. Washington (I.) the first President of the United States. 
1791 Vermont admitted into the Union. 
1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 

1796. Tennessee admitted into the Union. 

1797. John Adams (II.) President of the United States. 

1799. Death of Washington. 

1800. Capital of U. S. removed from Philadelphia to Washington. 

1801. Thomas Jefferson (III.) President of the United States. 
1803. Louisiana purchased from France. 

" Death of Toussaint L'Ouverture in prison in France. 
1809. James Madison (IV.) President of the United States. " 

1811. Victory over the Indians at Tippecanoe by General Harrison. 

1812. War declared by the United States against Great Britain. 
" Surrender of Detroit by General Hull. 

1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

" Victory at the Thames by General Harrison. 

1814. Battles of Chippewa and Lundy Lane. 

" The city of Washington taken by General Ross. 
" Treaty of peace signed at Ghent. 



398 AMERICAN HISTORY. 

1815. Victoiy over the British at New Orleans by Jackson. 

1817. James Monroe (V.) President of the United States. 

1820. Passage of the Missouri Compromise bill. 

1826. Independence of Peru acknowledged by Spain. 

1825. John Quincy Adams (VI.) President of the United States. 

" Independence of Mexico acknowledged. 
1829. Andrew Jackson (VII.) President of the United States. 
1835. War with the Seminoles in Florida. 
1837. Martin Van Buren (VIII.) President of the United States. 

" Defeat of the Seminoles by Taylor. 

1841. William Henry Harrison (IX.) President of the United States. 
" John Tyler (X.) President of the United States. 

1842. The war with the Seminoles terminated. 

1845. James K. Polk (XI.) President of the United States. 
" Texas admitted into the Union. 

1846. Commencement of war between the United States and Mexico. 

1847. Victory over Santa Anna by Taylor at Buena Vista. 
" The city of Mexico taken by General Scott. 

1848. Treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico. 

1849. Zachary Taylor (XII.) President of the United States. 

1850. Death of President Taylor.- 

" Millard Fillmore (XIII.) President of the United States. 

" California admitted into the Union. 

" Soulouque (Faustin I.) Emperor of Hayti. 

1853. Franklin Pierce (XIV.) President of the United States. 

1854. Passage of Kansas and Nebraska bill. 

1857. James Buchanan (XV.) President of the United States. 

1859. Abdication of Soulouque, Emperor of Hayti. 

1860. Secession ordinance passed by South Carolina. 

1861. Secession ordinances passed by ten other States. 

" Abraham Lincoln (XVI.) President of the United States. 
" Beginning of the great war of the Rebellion. 
" First battle of Bull Run. 

1862. New Orleans taken by the Unionists. 

" The Seven Days' battles under McClellan. 

" Defeat of the Union army at Bull Run. 

" Victory over the Confederates at Antietam by McClellan. 

" "War declared against Mexico by France. 

1863. Emancipation proclamation issued by President Lincoln. 
" Victory gained by Rosecrans at Murfreesboro. 

" Defeat of the Unionists at Chancellorsville. 

" Defeat of the Confederates under Lee at Gettysburg. 



AMEKICAN" HISTOKY. 399 



1863. Vicksburg taken by General Grant. 

1864. Campaign of Grant in Virginia. Petersburg besieged. 
" Atlanta taken by General Sherman. 

" Battle of Nashville. Confederates defeated by Thomas. 

1865. Surrender of General Lee. End of the Kebellion. 
11 Assassination of President Lincoln. 

" Andrew Johnson (XVII.) President of the United States. 
" Slavery abolished throughout the United States. 

1867. Reconstruction Bill passed by Congress. 

" The Emperor Maximilian shot in Mexico. 

1868. Election of General Grant and Schuyler Colfax, President and 

Vice-President of the United States, 



400 AMERICAN HISTORY. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

PAGB 

1. What important voyages were made to America in the 15th century ? 227-234-359 

2. What important voyages were made in the 16th century ? 360-361 

3. Give a sketch of the colonial history of Virginia 361 

4. Of Massachusetts 361 5. Of New Hampshire. .. . 361 

6. Of Connecticut. 362 7. Of Ehode Island 362 

8. Of New York 362-363 9. Of New Jersey 363 

10. Of Maryland 363-364 11. Of Pennsylvania 304 

12. Of Delaware 364-365 13. Of Georgia 365 

14. Of North and South Carolina . . 360-365 15. Of Louisiana 366 

16. What French colonies were established in America ? 365-366 

17. What did the Portuguese accomplish in America ? 366-367 

18. Who was Pizarro, and what did he accomplish ? „ 367- 368 

*19. What else was accomplished for Spain in South America ? 368 

20. In what wars did the British colonies of America suffer ? 270-301 

21. Give a sketch of the causes of the Revolutionary war 369-370 

22. What military events took place before Independence was declared ?. . 370-371 

23. Give an account of those that occurred in Massachusetts 370-371 

24. Give an account of the other events of the year 1775 370-371 

25. What events of importance took place in 1776 ? 371-373 

26. Describe the battle of Long Island and Washington's retreat to Penna. 371 

27. What were the important events of 1777 ? 371-372-373 

28. Describe Washington's contests with General Howe 371-372 

29. Give an account of the invasion and surrender of Burgoyne 372-373 

30. Give an account of the events of 1778 373 

31. Give an account of the events of 1779 373 

32. Give an account of the events of 1780 373-374 

33. Give an account of the events of 1781, and close of the war 374 

34. What is said of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution ?. . . 374-375 

35. Give an outline of the events of Washington's administration 375 

36. Of John Adams's 375 37. Of Jefferson's 375-376 

38. What were the causes of the second war with England ? 376 

39. Give a sketch of the military events previous to 1813 376 

40. Give a sketch of the military events of 1813 376 

41. Give a sketch of the military events of 1814 377-378 

42. Give a sketch of the naval events of the war 376-377-275 

43. What were the important events of Monroe's administration ? 378-379 

44. Of John Q. Adams's ? 379 45. Of Jackson's ? 379-380 

46. Of Van Buren's ? 380 47. Of Tyler's? 380 

48. Give the cause and commencement of the Mexican war 3S0-3S1 

49. Give an account of the events of 1846 3S1 

50. Give an account of the events of 1847 381-382 

51. When was a treaty made, and what were its terms ? 382 

52. What were the events of Taylor's and Fillmore's administration ? 382 

53. Of Pierce's? 382-383 54. Of Buchanan's ? 383-3S4 

55. Relate the causes which led to the " Great Civil War" 384-385 

56. What did the Confederates do before the inauguration of Lincoln ? 385 

57. What afterward occurred before McClellan took command ? 385 

58. Give an account of McClellan's movements 385-386- 387 

59. Give an account of the operations in Missouri 386 

60. Give an account of the operations in Louisiana 386 



AMERICAN HISTORY., 401 

PAGE 

61. Give an account of Lee's operations previous to 1865 386-387 

62. Give an account of Burnside's operations 387 

63. Of Pope's 387 64. Of Hooker's 387 

65. Of Banks's 387 66. Of Rosecrans's 387 

67. Of Grant's 386-387-388 68. Of Sheridan's 388 

69. Of Sherman's 388-389 70. Of Thomas's 388 

71. What were the closing events of the war ? 389 

72. What had President Lincoln done in reference to the slaves ? 389 

73. What can you state of Lincoln's character, acts, and death ?.. 389 

74. Name the principal events of Johnson's administration 390 

75. Give, as far as you can, the history of slavery in the U. S 379-383-389-39C 

76. By whom was Johnson succeeded in the Presidency ? 390 

77. Give the history of Mexico previous to the discovery of America 391 

78. Its subsequent history to the establishment of its independence 391 

79. Give a sketch of the career of Santa Anna 381-382-392 

80. What treaty was made by Mexico in 1862 ? 392 

81. What circumstances led to the making of the treaty ? 392 

82. Give the subsequent history of Mexico 392 

83. Give the history of Central America previous to 1821 392-393 

84. Give the subsequent history of Central America 393 

85. What can you state of Belize and the Mosquito kingdom ? 393 

86. What events in the life of Columbus can you mention ? 359-367-368-893 

87. By what right does Spain hold many islands of the West Indies ? 393 

88. What account can you give of the Buccaneers ? 393 

89. What history can you give of the Island of Cuba ? 393-394 

90. State all the facts you can in relation to Jamaica 394 

91. Give the history of Hayti, or Hispaniola 394-395 

92. Give the facts in relation to Toussaint L'Ouverture 394-395 

93. Name, in chronological order, the most prominent facts in American 

history of the 15th ceniury 396 

94. Name, in order, those of the 16th century 396 

95. Name, in ordei, those of the 17th century 396 

96. Name, in order, those of the 18th century 396-397 

97. Name, in order, those of the 19th century 397-398 



INDEX. 



A. 



PAGE 



Abbasides (ab-bas'e-dez) 152 

Abbe deFleu'ry 302 

Abd-el-Ka'der 319 

Ab'dul A'ziz 352 

Ab-er-crom'Trie, Sir Ralph 273 

Aboukir {ab-oo-keer') 310 

A-lbra-hani 26 

A-bu'be-ker 150 

Ab-ys-sin'i-a 280 

A-ca'di-a 365 

Ac-ar-na / ni-a 34 

A-chae'an League 59 

Achaia (a-ka f yah) 34 

Achaia, a Roman province 61 

Achilles {a-kil'lez) 34 

Acre (a'ker) 208, 210, 310 

Act of Conformity 240 

Actium (ah 'she-urn) 100 

Adams, John 375, 379 

Adams, John Quincy 379 

Ad'di-son 267 

A-dol'phus. King of the Goths 125 

Adolphus, Gustavus -. 327, 338 

A'dri-an Ill, 112 

A-dri-an-o'ple 123, 139 

A-dri-at'ic, Wedding the 222 

.<Egean (e-ge'an) Sea 31, 39 

jE'gos-pot'a-mos 45,48 

JS'li-a Cap-i-to-li'na 112 

^E-miFi-us 80,84 

iE-o'li-ans, Migration of 35 

iE'qui-ans 71 

Aetius (a-e'she-us) 126 

^E-to'li-a 34 

^E-to'li-an League. . ., 59 

Af-ghan-is-tan' 278 

Afri-ca 11, 125 135, 153, 227, 393 

A-gath'o-cles 78 

Age of Despots 38 

Agesilaus (a-jes-e-la'us) 48, 49 

Agincourt (aj'in-court) 179, 199 

A'gis 56, 59 

Agnadello (an-yah-del'lo) 287 

A-gra'ri-an Laws 70, 86 

A-gric'o-la 110 

Ag-ri-gen'tum 61 

Ag-rip-pi'na 107 

A-has-u-e'rus 32 

Ah'ri-man 33 

Aix-la-Chapelle (akes lah sha-pel') 145 
270, 303, 329 

Ak'bah 151 

Alabama (al-ah-bah'mah).. 377,378,385 

Al 'a-ric 124, 125 

A-las'ka 390 

Albany (awl'ba-ne) 363 

Al-be-marle', Duke of 259 

Albert 1 217,219 



PAGE 

Albert n..... 218 

Albert, Prince 278,280 

Albigenses (al-be-jen'sez) 191, 192 

Albigeois (al'be-zhwah) 191 

Al'bo-in 134 

Alcibiades (al-se-W ah-dez) 45 

Alciun (al'kwin) 145 

A-lep'po 138 

Al-ex-an'der the Great 51, 53, 54, 55 

Alexander II. of Russia 343 

Alexander III., King of Scotland... 171 

Alexander VI., Pope 286 

Alexander Se-ve'rus 116 

Al-ex-an'dri-a 53, 84, 96, 115, 135, 309 

Al-fon'so II. of Aragon 285 

Al-fon'so III. of Portugal 227 

Alfonso VI. of Portugal 227 

Alfonso X. of Portugal 225 

Alfred the Great 157 

Al-ge'ri-a, Conquest of 319 

Algiers (al-jeerz ') 378 

Al^ham'bra 227 

Ali (ah'le) 150 

Al-le-man'ni 143 

Alli-a River 73 

Al'ma 279 

Almagro (al-mah' gro) . 368 

Al Mansur (man-soor') 152 

Alps 80,214, 310 

Alsace (al-sahsO 297 

Altai (al-tiO 134 

Al'torf 217 

Alva, Duke of 336 

Alyattes (a-le-at'tez) 17 

A-mal'fi 224 

A-ma'sis 21 

Am'a-zon 367 

America .... 270, 359 

America, North, 147, 234, 241, 258, 271 270 

359 
America, South.. . 234, 359, 366, 367, 368 
Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re'go ves-poot'- 

che) 359, 368 

American Colonies 269, 272, 361 

Am'i-das 360 

Amiens (am'e-enz), Treaty of. . . 273, 311 

A'mir-al-ma 151 

Am'mon 31 

A-moor' River 343 

Am-phic-ty-on'ic Council 51, 62 

Am-phip'o-lis 44, 50 

Am'ster-dam 300 

Am'u-rath 139 

An'cus Martius (mar 'she-its) ti8 

An'gles 147 

Anjou (ahn'joo) 187 

An-nap'o-lis 365, 366 

Anne, Queen of England... 263, 265, 266 
Anne of Austria 29b 



404 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Anne Boleyn {an bid' en).... 235, 236, 237 

Anne, Duchess of Brittany 285, 286 

Anne of Cleves 237 

An'son, Commodore 268 

Antalcidas (an-taV 'se-das) ,. 48 

Antietam {an-te'tam) 387 

An-tig'o-nus . . 57, 58 

Antigonus Do'son 60 

Antigonus Go-na'tas 59 

An'ti-och, founded by Seleucus 58 

An-ti'o-chus the Great 83, 93 

An-tip'a-ter 51, 56, 57 

Antoinette, Marie {an-twah-net') 304, 308 

An-to-ni'nus Pi'us 112 

Antoninus, Marcus Au-re'li-us . . 112, 113 

An'to-ny, Mark 98, 99, 100 

Ant'werp 336 

A-pol'lo, Oracle and Temple of 63 

Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us 72 

A-pu'li-a 223 

Aquitaine {ak-we-tain') 143 

Ar-a-bel'la Stuart 245 

A-ra'bi-a 23, 24, 55, 150 

Ar'a-go 319 

Ar'a-gon 193, 224, 225 

A'ram 26 

A-ra'tus of Sicyon {sish'e-on) 59, 60 

Arbela {ar-be'lah) 54 

Af-ca'di-a 34 

Ar-ca'di-us 124, 131 

Archangel {ark-an'gel) 239 

Archimedes {ar-ke-me'dez) 78, 81 

Archons (ar'kons) 37 

Ardesher {ard-e-sher') 116 

A-re-op'a-gus 37 

Argentine {ar-j en-teen') Republic 3(i8 

Argo 35 

Ar'go-lis 34, 36 

Ar-go-naut'ic Expedition 35 

Ar'gos 36, 45, 48, 77 

Aristides (ar-is-ti'dez) 41, 42, 43 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus 93 

Aristobulus II 93 

Aristotle {ar'is-tot-eZ) 51 

Aries (arl) 146 

Ar-ma'da, Invincible 241 

Ar-me'ni-a 92, 96 

Ar-min'i-us 105 

Arnold, Benedict 371, 373 

Arnold of Winkelried {win'kel-reed) 219 

Artaphernes {ar-tah-pher'nez) 39 

Artaxerxes I. {ar-tax-erx'ez) 32, 43 

Artaxerxes II 46 

Arthur, King 148 

Arthur, Prince 167, 234 

Artois (ar'twah), Count of 318 

As'ca-lon 207 

Ascham, Roger (as'kam) 238 

As'dru-bal 81 

Ash'dod 26 

Ashley River. ... 365 

Ash'ur 14 

Asia (a'she-ah) 11, 136, 222 

Asia Minor 17, 84 

As'ke-lon 26 

As-mo-nse'an Dynasty 93 

As'pern, Battle of 313 

As-syr'i-a 14 

Assyrians 17 



PAGE 

As-tra-chan' {-lean) or As-tra-can' 350 

Astrology 23 

Astronomy 152, 255 

As-tu'ri-as 225 

Astyages (as-ti'ah-jez) 17 

Ath'ei-stan 157 

Ath'ens 37 

Ath'os, Mt 89 

At-lan'tic 25, 146 

Atlantic Cable 280 

At'ta-lus 83, 84 

Attica (at'te-kah) 34, 37, 41, 44 

Attila (at'te-lah) 125, 126, 220 

Augsburg {ougs'boorg) 214, 326 

Augustan Age of England 267 

Augustan Age of French Literature 302 

Au'gustine, St ... i 360 

Au-gus'tus 104, 105 

Au-gus'tu-lus, Rom'u-lus 127 

Au-re'li-an 119, 120 

Au-re'li-us, Marcus 112, 113 

Aus'ter-litz 311 

Aus-tra'si-a (she-ah) 143 

Austria 217, 296, 312, 330 

Austrian Succession,War of, 269, 303, 328 

Avars (a-varz') 133, 134, 145 

Avignon (ah-ven'yong) .... 192, 194, 225 
Az'tecs 391, 393 

Ba'bel *. 11 

Bab'y-lon 13 

Bab-v-lo'ni-a 12 

Ba'con 244, 246 

Bac'tri-a , 54 

Baden (bah'den) 330 

Bag'dad 136, 152, 153 

Ballly {bahl-ye') 305 

Baj'a-zet 139 

Bajazetll 349 

Bal-ak-la'va 279 

Bal-bi'nus 117 

Bal-bo'a 367 

Baldwin, Count of Flanders.... 138, 209 

Ba'li-ol, John 171, 172 

Baltic 176 

Baltimore 378 

Banks, General 387 

Ban'nock-burn 173 

Bar-ba'does 259 

Barbaric Monarchies, Map of.. facing 131 
Bar-ba-ros'sa, Frederick, 208, 215, 216, 221 

Barbarossa, the Pirate 325 

Barebone, Praise-God 255 

Bar'low 360 

Bar'net 1 82 

Ba'sil II 136 

Bastile Q)ahs-teeV) 305 

Batavian Republic 336 

Ba-va'ri-a 218, 269, 330 

Bay'ard, Chevalier 287, 288, 289 

Beauharnais (bo-ar-na') Hortense.... 320 

Beck' et, Thomas a 163, 164, 165 

Bel or Be'lus 12 

Belgium (bel'je-um) 301, 335 

Bel-grade' 328, 350 

Bel-i-sa'ri-us 132, 133 

Belize (ba-leez') 393 

Bel-shaz'zar 14 



IKDEX. 



405 



PAGE 

Be'mie (or Beni'is) Heights 373 

Ben'e-dek, Marshal 330 

Ben-e-ven'tum 76 

Ben-e-ven'to 224 

Bengal (ben-gawl') 271 

Ben-ha'dad 26 

Ben'ning-ton 373 

Beresina (ber-e-ze'na) 315 

Ber'gen 216, 363 

Berkley, Lord 363 

Ber-lin', or Ber'lin 312, 330 

Ber-na-dotte' 339 

B erne 344 

Be-ro'sus 14 

Ber'tha 188 

Bible, English ■ 237, 247 

Bi-thyn'i-a 84, 139 

Black Prince.. 174, 175, 197, 198, 225, 226 

Blackheath 177 

Blake, Admiral 254, 255, 256 

Blanche of Castile (Jcas-teel') 192 

Blenheim (blen'Jiime) 266, 328 

Blucher (Moo' Jeer) 316, 332 

Bceotia (be-o'sJie-ah) 34, 59 

Bo-he'mi-a 218 

Bo'he-mond, Count of Tarentum 207 

Bo-les'las 331 

Boleyn, Anne (bid'en, an).. 235, 236, 237 

Bolingbroke (bul'ing-briiJe) 267 

Bol'i-var 368 

Bo-liv'i-a 368 

Bo'na-parte, Napoleon, 273, 274, 275, 309- 
317, 375, 376. 

Bonaparte, Jer-ome' 312 

Bonaparte, Joseph 311, 313 

Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, 311, 320,321, 

337, 345 

Bon'i-face VOL, Pope 183, 184 

Book of Common Prayer 238 

Bordeaux (bar-do') 194 

Bor'gi-a, Caesar 286 

Borodino (bor-o-de'no) 314 

Borussi (bo-roos'si) 331 

Bo-rys'the-nes 134, 136 

Bos'po-rus 32, 136 

Bos'ton :.. 361,362,369,371 

Bos'worth Field 184 

Both'ni-a 339 

Bouillon (boo-eel-yong'), Godfrey of. . 207 

Boulogne (boo-lone') 320 

Bour'bon, the Constable of. ... . 288, 289 

Boyne, Battle of the 264 

Bozzarris (bot-sar'ris) 353 

Brad'dock, General 270 

Brad'shaw 253, 258 

Bra-gan'za 346, 347 

Bragg, General 387, 388 

Bran'den-burg. 331 

Brau'dy-wine Creek 372 

Bras'i-das 44 

Brazil (brah-zeel') 313, 349, 366, 368 

Breed's Hill 370 

Brem'en 216, 314 

Bren'nus 59, 73 

Britain 25, 94, 107, 110, 114, 147 

Brit'ta-ny 187 

Brook'lyn 371 

Brougham (broo'am) 276 

Brown, John 383 



PAGB 

Bruce, Robert. 171, 172, 173 

Bruges (broo'jis, or broozhe) 216 

Brun-du'si-um (-zhe-um) 95 

Brussels 336 

Bru'tus, Junius 68 

Brutus, Marcus 97, 99 

Buccaneers 393 

Bu-chan'an, George 247 

Buchanan, James 383 

Buckle (buck' el) 281 

Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah) 381 

Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz) 368 

Bulgarians 133, 151, 206 

Bull Run 385, 387 

Bulvver (bul'wer) 281 

Bunker Hill 370 

Bun'yan, John 262 

Bur goyne(bur-goiii' ), General, 272,372,373 

Bur'gun-dy 143, 146, 187 

Burke, Edmund 273 

Burns 276 

Burnside, General 387 

Bute, Lord 271 

Butler, Samuel 262 

Butler, General 386 

By'ron, Lord 276,277,353 

Byz'an-tine Empire 131 

Byzantium (be-zan' she-um) 42, 122 

C. 

Cabal, the 259 

Cab'ot, John 234,359 

Cabot, Sebastian 234,359,368 

Ca-bral' 348, 36(5 

Cabul (kah-bool') 278 

Cade, Jack 181 

Ca-de'sia (she-ah) 150 

Cadiz (ka'diz) 25 

Caesar, Julius 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 

Caesars, the Twelve Ill 

Cairo (U'ro) 153, 309 

Ca-la'bri-a 223 

Calais (kal'is) 174, 196, 239, 291 

Ca'led 150 

California 381, 382 

Ca-lig'u-la, Caius 106, 108, 110, 114 

Cal'vin 344 

Cam-by'ses ." 21, 24, 29, 31 

Cam'den 374 

Ca-mil'lus 72, 74, 75 

Cam-pa'ni-a 83, 110 

Campbell, Sir Col'in 279 

Campo Pormio, Treaty of 309 

Canada. . . 270, 278, 303, 366, 371, 372, 380 

Ca-na'ries 25 

Cannae Qcan'ne) 80, 81 

Cannes (Jean) 316 

Cannon 154, 174 

Ca-nos 'sa 215 

Can-ton' 280 

Ca-nute' the Great 159 

Cap'et, Hugh (or Jea'pet) 147, 187 

Capetian Dynasty 147 

Ca'po d'Is'tri-a 353 

Cap-pa-do 'cia (she-aJi) 84, US 

Ca'pre-ae 106,108 

Cap'u-a.... 81, 91 

Car-a-cal'la 115 

Ca-rac'ta-cus Wi 



406 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Cardinal de Retz (rdtz) 299 

Car-ib-be'an Sea 393 

Ca-ri'nus 120 

Carlisle (kar-llle') 172 

Car'lo-man 144 

Car-lo-vin'gi-an Dynasty 144, 220 

Car-lyle' 281 

Car-o-li'na 360 

Caroline of Brunswick 276 

Carr, Robert 246 

Car'te-ret, Sir George 363 

Car'thage, 29, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86 

126, 151 

Car-tba-ge'na 268 

Cartier (kar-te-a') 360 

Cas'pi-an 16, 31, 94 

Cas-san'der 57, 58 

Cas'si-mer, John 334 

Cassius (kash'e-us) 94, 97, 98, 99 

Cassius, Spurius 70 

Castile (cas-teel') 225, 227 

Catharine de' Medici (med'e-che). 290, 292, 

293, 294 

Catharine of Ar'a-gon 234 

Catharine I. of Russia 342, 351 

Catharine II. of Russia 342, 351 

Cat'i-llne 93 

Ca'to 97 

Cau'ca-sus 343 

Cau'dlne Forks 75 

Cavaliers 250 

Cawn-pore' 279 

Caxt'on, William 183 

Cecil (ses'il), Lord Burleigh 240 

Cecrops (se'krops) 37 

Cel-ti-be'ri-a, (note) 86 

Cel-ti-be'ri-ans 86 

Central America 392 

Cer'ro Gor'do 382 

Chad's Ford 372 

Chaldea (kal-de'ah) 12 

Chaldees (kal-dez) 13 

Champagne (sham-pan' y a) 187 

Champlain (sham-plane') 366 

Chancellor de THopital (lo'pe-taT) 292 

Chancellorsville 387 

Charlemagne (shar'le-mahn) 144, 145, 146. 
148, 152, 213, 220, 221 

Charles Albert, of Savoy 345 

Charles the Bold 201, 202, 219 

Charles the Fat 146 

Charles the Simple 146, 160 

Charles the Pretender 269, 270 

Charles I. of England 247, 299 

Charles IX of England, 253, 254, 257, 300, 

363, 364 

Charles II. of Spain 301 

Charles IV. of France 174, 196 

Charles IV. of Bohemia 218 

Charles V. of France 198 

Charles V. of Germany, 235, 268, 289, 290, 
291, 325, 346, 350 

Charles VI. of France 198, 199 

Charles VI. of Germany 269, 328 

Charles VII. of France 199, 200, 201 

Charles VIII. of France 285, 286 

Charles IX. of France 292, 293, 360 

Charles X. of France 318 

Charles XI. of Sweden 338 



PAGE 

Charles XH. of Sweden. . . . 338, 341, 351 

Charles XIII. of Sweden 339 

Charles XIV. of Sweden 339 

Charles XV. of Sweden 339 

Charles of Anjou 193, 224 

Charles of Valois (val-wah') 195 

Charles, Archduke of Austria 313 

Charleston 365, 371, 373, 385, 389 

Chartists 278 

Chatham, Earl of 271, 272 

Chaucer (chau'ser) 176 

Chesapeake Bay 372, 3S5 

Chesapeake, the Frigate 376 

Chev'y Chase, Ballad of 178 

Chick-a-mau'ga 387 

Chili (che'le) 367, 368 

China 138, 222, 280 

Chinese Tartary 137 

Chip'pe-wa 377 

Choeronea (Jce-ro-ne'ah) 51 

Christ 9, 105, 123 

Christian II. of Denmark 337 

Christian IV. of Denmark 326, 339 

Christian IX. of Denmark 340 

Christianity 148, 165, 331 

Christians, Persecution of, 107, 112, 113, 

117, 121 

Christina (kris-ti'nah) 338 

Christina of Spain 340 

Chronology 9 

Church, English -. 236 

Church, Greek 137 

Church, Romish 137, 236, 249 

Chrysostom (kHs'os-tom) 131 

Cicero (sis'e-ro) 93, 98, 99 

Cilicia (se-lish'e-ah) Ill , 1 18 

Cimon (si'mori) 43 

Cim'bri-ans (sim-) 88, 89 

Cin-cin-na'tus 71 

China (sin'nah) 90 

Cis-al'pine Gaul 89 

Cisalpine Republic 309 

Citium (sish'e-um) 43 

Clairvaux (clare-vo') 208 

Clar'en-don 163 

Clarendon, Constitutions of 164 

Clau'di-us 106, 107, 109, 119 

Clay, Henry 382 

Cle-ar'chus (-kus) 46 

Clem / ent, the Assassin of Henry HI. 294 

Clement V., Pope 194 

Clement VII., Pope 235, 290 

Cle-om'e-nes 59, 60 

Cle'on 44, 45 

Cle-o-pat'ra 96, 99, 100 

Cler-mont' 206 

Clifford, Rosamond 166 

Clinton, George 373, 374 

Clisson (kles'song), Oliver 195 

dive, Lord 271 

Clon'tarf 165 

Clo-til'da 143 

Clo'vis 143 

Clusium (klti'she-um) 73 

Clyde (kffide) River 115 

Cly/tus 54 

Cnidus (ni'dus) 48 

Cob'ham, Lord 179 

Cod, Cape 361,363 



INDEX. 



40? 



PAGE 

Cod-o-man'nus 33 

Co'drns 37 

Colbert {kol-bare') 299 

Colchis (kol'kis) 9(5 

Cole'ridge 276 

Colfax {kol'fax), Schuyler {ski'ler) .. . 390 
Coligny JJco-leen-ye'), Admiral... 292, 293 

Cologne {ko-lone') 216 

Col-la-ti'nus t58 

Co-lom'bi-a 368 

Col-os-se'um 109, 110 

Co-los'sus of Rhodes 150 

Co-lum'bi-a. .« 389 

Columbus, Christopher.. .. 227, 234, 359, 
m r t, 368, 393 

Com'mo-dus 113 

Commonwealth, English 253, 254 

Com-ne'nus, Manuel 208 

Con'de, the Great 299, 300 

Confederation of the Rhine 328 

Confederation, North German 330 

Connecticut {con-net' e-cut) 362 

Co'non 45, 48 

Con'rad of Franconia 213 

Conrad II. of Germany 214 

Conrad III. of Germany ....... 208, 215 

Con'stance, Council of 218 

Constance, Peace of. 216 

Con'stan-tine 121, 122 

Constantine Palaeologus 139 

Constantinople. 122, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137. 
138, 139, 151, 206, 209, 222, 349, 352 

Con-stan'tius (she-us) 121, 122 

Co-pen-ha'gen 273, 340 

Cor-cy'ra (c like s) 44 

Cor'day, Charlotte 308 

Cor'do-va 152 

Cordova, the discoverer of Mexico. . 360 

Cor'fu 353 

Cor'inth 38,44,48,51,61 

Cor-i-o-la'nus 71 

Co-ri'o-li 71 

Corn Laws, Repeal of. 278 

Cornwall 233 

Corn-wal'lis, Lord 272, 374 

Cor-o-ne'a 48 

Cor'si-ca 303 

Cor'tez 360,391 

Co-run'na, Battle of 274 

Cos'sacks 334 

Cos-so'va : 139 

Costa Rica {kos'tah re'kah) 393 

Covenant, Scottish 249, 251 

Covenanters 254 

Cov'er-dale (kuv-) 238 

Cow'per 276 

Cra'cow 334 

Cran'mer 236, 238, 239 

Cras'sus 91,92,94 

Crat'er-us 56, 57 

Crecy {kres'e) 174, 196 

Cre-mo'na 109 

Cri-me'a. 351 

Crim'e-an War 279, 343, 352 

Crcesus (kre'sus) 18, 29, 39 

Crom / well, Minister to Henry VIII. . 237 
Cromwell, Oliver. . . 252, 253, 254, 258, 331 

Cromwell, Richard 257 

Cro'ton 61 



PAGK 

Cro-to'na 223 

Crusades. . . 137, 161, 166, 170, 189, 205, 216 

Ctesiphon {tes'e-fon) Ill, 115, 152 

Cu'ba 393 

Cul-lo'den 270 

Cumse (ku'me) 61 

Cumberland, Duke of. . . 269, 270, 271, 277 

Cumberland River 386 

Cu-nax'a 46 

Cur'few Bell 161 

Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus 76 

Cush 12 

Cyaxares {si-ax' a-rez) 16, 17, 29 

Cyn-os-ceph'a-lse, or Cyn-o-ceph'a-le 

{sin-) 60, 83 

Cy'prus 42, 43, 150 

Cy-re'ne 61 

Cyrenaica {si-re-na'e-kah) 61 

Cyrus the Great. . . 14, 17, 18, 25, 28, 31, 39 

Cyrus the Younger 46, 47 

Cyzicus {siz'e-kus) 62 

». 

Dacia {da'she-ah) 119, 134 

Dacians , Ill 

Dal-ma'tia {-she-ah) 120,121,122 

Da-mas'cus. .26, 135, 138, 150, 151, 208, 209 

Dam-i-et'ta 209 

Dan'do-lo 222 

Danes , 157, 158, 159 

Dan'ton 308 

Dant'zic 216 

Danube. . .32, 59, 111, 119, 123, 134, 351. 352 

Darien, Isthmus of 268, 3(57 

Da-ri'us Hys-tas'pes 32, 38, 39 

Darius Cod-o-man'nus 33, 53, 54, 115 

Darnley, Lord 242 

Da'tis 39 

Dau'phin-y 196 

David, king of Israel 26, 29 

David, king of Scotland . . . 173, 174, 175 

Davis, Jefferson 385,390 

De-ca'tur 376,378 

De-cem'virs 72 

Decius {de 1 'she-us) 117 

Dej'o-ces 17 

Delaware 364 

Delaware Bay 363 

Delaware River 364, 371 

Delaware, Lord 361, 364 

Delhi {del'le) 279 

De Leon, Ponce {da la-on', pon'tha) . 359 

De'li-um 44 

Del'phi 50, 59, 62, 63 

Delta of the Nile.. 22 

De-me'tri-us Pha-le're-us 57 

Demetrius Po-li-or-ce / tes 57, 58, 59 

De Monts {da mong) 365 

De Mont'fort, Simon 191 

De-mos'the-nes 51, 56, 99 

Denmark, 146, 147, 148, 158, 263.302,337,339 

De Quincey 281 

De Ruyter {ri'ter) 255, 259 

Der'went River 160 

Deseze {duh-saz') 308 

De So'to .... 360 

Dettingen {det'ting-eri) 269 

De Witt 300 

Diaz {de'az), Bartholomew 221 



408 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Dickens 281 

Dictator 69 

Dido '. 25 

Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus 114 

Dieskau (de-es-ko 1 ) 270 

Di'et, German 213, 326, 329, 330 

Di-o-cle'ti-an (she-an) 120, 121 

Dionysius (di-o-nis/ie-us 78 

Dnieper (ne'per) 340,351 

Dniester (nees'ter) ... , 340 

Doge of Venice 221 

Domes'dayBook 161 

Domitian (do-mish' e-an) 110, 111 

Don Carlos 347 

Don Carvalho (kar-val'yo) 348 

Don Miguel (nie'gwel) 349 

Don River 340, 350 

Don'nel-son, Fort 386 

Dor 'ches-ter Heights . . 371 

Do ri-ans k 35 

Doris 34 

Douglas 178 

Dover 361 

Dra'co 37 

Drake, Sir Francis 241 

Dres'den 315 

Dru'sus 104 

Dry'den 262 

Dublin 165 

Dubois (du-bwah') 302 

Dudley 234 

Dudley, Lord Guilford 238 

Du Guesclin (ga-klang 1 ) 198, 225 

Du-il'li-us 78,79 

Dumourier (du-moo-re-a') 307 

Dun'bar 171, 254, 256 

Dun'kirk 256,258 

Du Quesne (kane) 270 

Durazzo (doo-rat'zo) 223 

Dur'ham 174 

Dutch Republic 2(30 

E. 

Earl of Essex 244, 251, 295 

Earl of Lind'say 251 

Earl of Mar 267 

Earl of Richmond 183,184 

Earl of Surrey 235, 237, 238 

Earl of Warwick 180, 181, 182, 233 

East Anglia 148 

East Indies 222 

East Locris 34 

E'bro 145, 152 

Ec-bat'a-na 17, 32, 54, 55 

Eckniuhl 313 

Ecuador (ek-wah-dor') 368 

Eden-ton 365 

E des-sa 207, 208 

Edgehill 251 

Edict of Nantes (nantz) 295, 301, 331 

Edinburgh (ed'in-bur-ro) 251, 269 

Edmund Ironside 159 

Edward 1 169, 194 

Edward II 172, 196 

Edward III 173, 196, 209, 210 

Edward IV 181,232, 233 

Edward V 183 

Edward VI 238, 239, 240 

Edward the Confessor 159, 160, 161 



PAOi 

Edward the Elder 157 

E-gal'i-te, Philip 308 

Egbert 148, 157 

Egypt, 11, 14, 15, 19, 49, 53, 54. 58, 93, 95 
100, 135, 150, 309, 352 

Egyptians, civilization of 22 

Eilau (i'low) r.... 312 

Ek'ron 26 

El-a-gab'a-lus 116 

E'lani 13 

El'ba 275,316 

El'ean-or of Guienne (ghe-eri), 103, 166 

19f 

El'i-ot, Sir John 247, 248 

E'lis 34,35, 63 

Elizabeth of England, 23S, 247, 292, 360 

Elizabeth of Russia 342 

Elizabethtown 363 

El-len-bor'ough, Lord 278 

Embalming 24 

Era'e-sa 115 

Em'son 234 

England (ing' 'gland), 148, 157, 232, 353, 360 

English Justinian 172 

E-pam-i-non'das 48, 49 

Eph'e-sus 61 

Eph'o-ri 36 

E-pi'rus 33, 34, 58, 76, 95 

Era, Christian 8, 105 

Era of Martyrs 121 

Erie, Lake 377 

E'sar-had'don 15 

Essex 148 

Essex, Earl of 244 

Eth'el-red, the Unready 158, 159 

E-tru'ria 72, 73 

E-trus'cans 75 

E-thi-o'pi-a 11, 15, 21, 23, 24, 29 

Euboea (u-be'ah) 34 

Eu-dox'i-a 126, 131 

Eugene, Prince 266, 301, 328 

Eu-phra'tes 12, 27, 31, 54, 58, 84, 94 

Europe 11, 54, 142, 152, 153, 175, 206, 

210, 221 

Europe, Central and Southern 213 

European States 325 . 

Eu-ry-bi'a-des 40 

Eu-rym'e-don 43 

Eux'ine 47, 62, 125 

Eves'ham 170 

Ex-ar'chate of Ra-ven'na... 134, 144, 221 

Eyre (Ire), Governor 394 

E-ze'ki-el 21 

E'zi-on-ge'ber 27 

Ez'ra 32 

F. 

Fa'b-i-us Max'i-mus 80, 81 

Faineants (fa-na-ong r ) 144 

Fairfax, Lord 251 

Fairfax, Sir Thomas 252 

Fair Oaks, Battle of 386 

Falkirk (fawl'kirk) 171 

Falkland (fawk'land), Lord 251 

Faroe (fa'ro) Islands 14C 

Far'ra-gut, Admiral 386 

Fat'i-mites, Kingdom of 153 

Faus-ti'na 113 

Fawkes, Guy (faux, ghi) 245 



INDEX. 



409 



PAGE 

Fer'di-nand the Catholic 226, 286 

Ferdinand II. of Germany 326, 327 

Ferdinand VII. of Spain 318, 347 

Ferdinand of Bohemia 326, 327 

Feudal System 153 

Fill'niore, Mil'lard 382 

Fiii'land 331 

Firearms, commencement of use of, 174 

(note), 232 

Fish'er, Bishop 236 

Flanders . . . 187, 194, 199, 202, 265, 266, 300 

Flemings 194,199 

Fleu'ry, Abbe de 302 

Fleury, Cardinal 302 

Flod'den Field, Battle of 235 

Flor'ence 346, 359 

Florence, First Duke of 290 

Florida 360, 378, 379, 3S5 

Fontenaille (fon-te-neV) 145, 213, 220 

Fontenoy (fon-ta-nwah') 269 

Foth'er-in-gay Castle 242 

Fox 273 

France.. . 143, 187, 244, 285, 352, 360, 373, 
375, 376, 392 

Franche Comte (fransh Tcong'ta) 300 

Francis I. of France 288, 325 

Francis I. of Germany 328 

Francis II. of France 242, 291 

Francis II. of Austria 329 

Francis of Lorraine 328 

Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez) 291 

Fran-co'ni-an Emperors of Germany 214 

Frank'fort 241, 329 

Franklin, Benjamin 373 

Franks 142, 209, 213, 221 

Franks, Sa'li-an 143 

Frederick Barbarossa 208, 215 

Frederick, Elector-palatine 326 

Frederick of Austria 218 

Frederick of Bohemia 326 

Frederick the Great (of Prussia) 271, 

329 332 

Frederick I. of Denmark '339 

Frederick II. of Germany 209, 216 

Frederick III. of Germany 219 

Frederick HI. of Prussia 332 

Frederick William, the Great Elector 331 

Frederick William I. of Prussia 332 

Frederick William ID. of Prussia. . . 332 
Frederick William IV. of Prussia. . . 333 

Fredericksburg, Battle of 387 

Fre-mont', John C 3S1 

French and Indian War 366 

Friedland {freed' land) Battle of 312 

Fro'bish-er 241 

Fronde, Civil War of 299 

Fu'ri-us Ca-millus 72 

G. 

Ga'dSs 25 

Gaeta (gah-a'tali) 320 

Gage, General 369, 370 

Ga-la'tia {-she-ah) 59, 84 

Gal'ba 108 

Ga4e'ri-us 121 

Gal-li-e'-nus , . . . . 118, 119 

Gama (ghah'mah), Vasco da 227 

Gar-i-bal'di 320, 345 

Gas'co-ny 187 



PAGE 

Gas'ton de Foix (fwah) 287 

Gaston, .Duke of Orleans 298 

Gates, General 273, 373, 374 

Ga th 26 

Gau-ga-me'la 54 

Gaul 88, 94, 97, 125, 126, 143, 147 

Gauls 59, 75, 94 

Ga'za 53 

Gelon (Je'lon) 78 

Ge-ne'va . 241, 344 

Genoa (jerio-ah) 211, 222, 345, 359 

Genseric (jen'ser-ik) 126 

Geoffrey (jef're) 166, 167 

George I. of England 267 

George I. of Greece 353 

George II. of England 269, 365 

George III. of England 271, 275 

George IV. of England 276, 277 

George, Prince of Denmark 263 

Georgia 268, 365, 3S5, 388 

Gepidse (jep'e-de) 134 

Ger-man'i-cus 105, 106 

Ger'man-town 372 

Germany, 105, 134, 144, 146, 188, 213, 287, 

325 

Germanic Confederation 329 

Gesler (ghes'ler) 217 

Geta {je'tah) 115 

Gettysburg (ghet-) 387 

Ghent 275, 336, 378 

Ghib'el-lines 215, 220 

Gibbon, a distinguished historian. . . 276 

Gibraltar (jib-rawl'ter) 151, 266 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 360 

Girondists (zhe-rond'ists) 307, 308 

Glencoe, Massacre of 264 

Glen'dow-er, Owen 178 

God'frey of Bouillon (poo-eel-yong'), 207, 

221 

Godwin, Earl 159 

Gon-zal'vo of Cordova 2S7 

Good Hope, Cape of, 223, 227, 241, 269, 

348, 367 

Gor'di-an 117, 119 

Gordon, Lady 233 

Gorges (gor'jez), Ferdinand 361 

Go'shen, the Land of 20 

Gos'nold, Bar-thol'o-mew 360 

Goths, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133 

Gower, a distinguished poet 176 

Grac'chus, Ca'i-us 87 

Gracchus, Ti-be'ri-us 86, 87 

Granada (grah-nah'dah) 226 

Grand Alliance 265, 301 

Gran-i'cus 53, 54 

Grant, General. ... 386, 387, 388, 389, 390 

Gratian (gra'she-an) 123 

Gray, a distinguished poet 276 

Gray, Elizabeth 182 

Great Britain, 312, 316, 352, 369, 374, 375, 

376, 392 

Great Desert 22 

Grecian Colonies 39, 6t 

Greece 33, 84, 124, 352 

Greek Empire 131, 137 

Greek Fire 135, 151 

Greek Historians 14 

Greeks 35, 47, 138, 352, 353 

Greene, General 374 



410 



I^DEX. 



PAGE 

Greenland 146 

Greg'o-ry the Great .- 134, 148 

Gregory VII., Pope. . . . 205, 214, 215, 224 

Gregory X., Pope 217 

Grey, Lady Jane 238 

Guanahani (gwah-nah-hah'ne) 393 

Guatemala {gwah-te-mah'lah) 393 

Guiana (ghe<ah f nah) 245 

Guienne (ghe-en f ).. 163, 187, 190, 194, 196 

Guelphs (gwelfs) 215, 220 

Guis'card (or gliees-kar'), Robert, 223, 

224 
Gunpowder, invention of, 174, (note), 

232, (note) 

Gus-ta'vus A-dol'phus 297, 327, 338 

Gustavus Vasa (vah'sah) 337 

Gustavus IV. of Sweden 339 

II. 

Hale, Sir Matthew 262 

Hal'i-doun Hill 173 

Ha'lys River 16,18 

Ham 12 

Hamburg 216, 314 

Ham-il'car 79 

Ham'il-ton, Alexander 375 

Hampden (ham! den), John. . 250, 251, 261 

Han'ni-bal 79, 80, 81, 82 

Han'o-ver 267, 271, 277 

Han'sa 216 

Hanse Towns 314 

Han-se-at'ic League 216 

Haps'burg 217 

Hard'i-ca-nute 159 

Har-fleur' 197, 199 

Har'old 159, 160 

Harold Harefoot 159 

Haroun al Raschid (ha'roon air ash' id), 

152 

Har'ri-son, General 376, 377, 380 

Hart'ford 362 

Hastings, Battle of 160 

Hast'ings, Lord 183 

Hastings, Wan-en 272, 273 

Havana (hah-vah'nah) 393 

Hav'e-lock, General 279 

Haw'kins 241 

Hayti (ha'tee) 394 

Hay'ti-en Republic 395 

Haz'a-el 26 

He-gi'ra. . . 149 

He'li-o-gab'a-lus 115, 116 

Hel'las 33, 34, 61 

Hel-le'nes 34,353 

Hel'le-spont 40, 45, 53, 137 

Hen'ghist 147 

Henry of Burgundy 227 

Henry I. of England 162, 190 

Henry n. of England 163, 190 

Henry III. of England 169, 192, 193 

Henry IV. of England 178 

Henry V. of England 179, 199 

Henry VI. of England 180, 200 

Henry VH. of England, 184, 217, 232, 242, 

285, 359 
Henry VHL of England, 234, 243, 287, 

288, 290 

Henry I. of France 189 

Henry n. of France 290 



PAGE 

Henry HE. of France 294, 334 

Henry TV. of France 247, 294, 365 

Henry I. of Germany, (the Fowler). 213 

Henry n. of Germany 214 

Henry III. of Germany 214 

Henry IV. of Germany, 214, 215, 224, 244 

Henry V. of Germany 215 

Henry VI. of Germany 167 

Henry of Guise igweez) 294 

Henry, Fort 386 

Henry of Navarre (na-var') 294 

Henry, Prince, the Navigator 227 

Hep-tan'o-mis 22 

Heraclidse (her'a-kli'de) 37 

He-rac'li-us 134, 135, 150 

Her-cu-la'ne-um 110 

Hercules (her'cu-lez) 34, 35 

Heristal (er-is-taV), Pep'in d 1 144 

Her'mann 105 

Her'od the Great 105 

He-rod'o-tus 16, 19 

Hez-e-ki'ah 15, 21, 28 

Hi-ber'ni-a 165 

Hi'e-ro 78,81 

Hil'de-brand 214, 224 

Hin-do-stan' 278 

Hip-par'chus 38 

Hip'pi-as 38, 39 

His-pan-i-ola 394 

Hogue (hog), Cape la 265 

Ho^hen-lin'den 310 

Holland, 265, 269, 273, 300, 301, 327,335,363 

Holstein (hol-stine') 339, 340 

Ho'mer 35, 38 

Hon-du'ras 393 

Hong Kong 280 

Ho-no'ri-us 124,125,131 

Hood, General 3S8 

Hooker, General 387 

Hor'ace 105 

Horn, Cape 241 

Hor'sa , 147 

Hoshea (ho-she'ah) 28 

House of Commons, English 170 

Howard, Catharine 237 

Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, 237, 238 

Howard, Lord 371 

Howe, General 371 

Howe, Lord, Admiral 241 

Hud' son, Henry 3G2, 371 

Hudson River 362 

Hugh Cap'et 147 

Hugh the Great 207 

Hu'go 147 

Huguenots {hu'ghe-nof), 292, 293, 294, 295, 
297, 301, 331, 360, 365 

Hull, Captain 376 

Hull, General 376 

Hume 276 

Hungary (hung'garre)... 218, 328, 343, 350 

Huns 123, 125, 134 

Huss, John 218 

Hy-das'pes 55 

Hyde {hide), Sir Edward 258 

Hyksos (hik'sos) 20, 28 

Hyph'a-sis 55 

Hyr-ca'nus, John 93 

Hystaspes (his-tas'pez) 33 



INDEX. 



411 



I. 

I-ax'ar-tSs 54 

Fber-ville 366 

I-be'rus River 80 

Ib'ra-him Pacha (pash-aw') 352 

Ice'land , 146 

I-co'ni-um 137 

Il-li-nois / (noi) . 378 

Il-lyr'i-a 114 

India. . . 23, 54, 137, 227, 241, 271, 272, 348 

Indiana 378 

Indian Mutiny 279 

In'dus River 32, 55, 94, 278 

Ink'er-mann 279 

Innocent HI., Pope 168, 191, 209 

Inquisition 192 

Ionians 32, 39 

Ion'ic Colonization 35 

Ip'sus, Battle of 57, 58 

Ireland 165, 249, 254, 264, 274 

Ire'ton 254,258 

Irkoutsk (er-kootsk') 341 

Isabella of Castile (kas-ted f ) . . . 226, 227, 

347, 359 

Isabella of England 173, 174, 196 

Is'ra-el 15,22,26,27, 28 

Is-ra-el-ites' 26 

Is'sus 53, 114 

Isth'nii-an Games 63 

Italy, 61, 67, 77, 80, 127, 132, 133, 134, 146, 
213, 215, 220, 223, 224, 344 

Iturbide {e-toor'be-tha) 391, 393 

Ivan III 341 

Ivry (ee'v're) 295 

T. 

Jack'son, General 377, 378, 379 

Ja'cob 20 

Jac'o-bin Club. 306 

Jacquerie (zhak'e-re), Insurrection of, 197 

Jaf 'fa 310 

Ja-mai'ca 256 

James I. of England 245 

James II. of England 262, 301 

James IV. of Scotland 233, 235 

James VI. of Scotland 245, 267 

James, Duke of York 259, 261, 363 

James Eiver 386,388 

James the Pretender 267, 270 

Jamestown 246, 361 

Ja'phet 11, 34 

Ja'van 34 

Jefferson 375, 379 

Jefferson Davis 385, 390 

Jeffries, Judge 262 

Je-hoi / a-kim 14 

Je-hosh'a-phat 28 

Je-ho'vah 27 

Jemeppe (zha-mep') 307 

Je/na 312, 332 

Jen'ghis Khan 138, 153 

Jer-o-bo'am 27 

Jer-ome' Bonaparte 312 

Jerome of Prague 218 

Je-ru'sa-lem, 14, 20, 26, 28, 92, 93, 109, 123, 
135, 137, 150, 205, 207, 208, 209 

Jews 15, 21, 26 

Joan of Arc 180, 200, 201 

John of England 167,191 



PAGE 

John of France 175, 196, 197 

John E. of Portugal 227 

John II. of Portugal 227 

John IV., Duke of Bra-gan'za 348 

John VI. of Portugal 349 

John, Don, of Austria 351 

John of Gaunt 177, 232 

John of Suabia 217 

Johnson, Andrew 389, 390 

Johnson, General 270 

Johnson, Samuel 275 

Jor'dan . 26 

Joseph 20 

Joseph Bonaparte 311, 313 

Joseph of Portugal 348 

Josephine 313, 320 

Jo-se'phus 109 

Josh'u-a 26 

Jo-si'ah 21 

Jo'vi-an 123 

Juarez (Jiwah'rez) 392 

Ju'ba 96 

Judah 20,27,28 

Ju-de'a 15, 92, 105 

Ju-gnr'tha 88, 90 

Ju'li-an 122, 147 

Julius II., Pope 287 

Ju'ni-us Bru'tus 68 

Junot (zhoo-no') 312, 349 

Ju'pi-ter 35, 63 

Jupiter Arn'mon 53 

Jus'tin H 134 

Jus-tin'i-an 132, 133, 134 

Jutes (joots) 147 

K. 

Kairwan (kire'wahn) 151 

Kan'sas 383 

Kar'nak 21 

Kearny (kar'ne) 381 

Kent 148 

Ken-tuck'y 375 

Kharasm (ka-rasm') .• . 13S 

Khosru (koz'roo) 135 

Kief (Jce-ef) 340 

Kiel (keel) 339 

Kleber (kla-bare') 310 

Knights Hospitallers of St. John. . . 207 

Knights of the Teutonic Order 331 

Knights Templars 194,207 

Ko'ran 150 

Kosciusko {kos-se-us f ko) 335 

Kossuth (kos-shoof) 330 

Lacedsemon (Jas-e-de'mon) 36 

La-co'ni-a 34, 36, 48, 362 

Las-vr'nus 76 

Lafayette {lah-fa-etf) 305, 307, 318 

La Hogue (hog) 265 

Lamartine (lah-mar-teen') 319 

La'mi-a 56 

Lamian War 56 

Lang'ton, Stephen 168 

Languedoc (Ian' g he-doc) 191, 192 

LaSalle(saO 366 

Lat'i-mer 239 

Latins 67, 68 

Latium Qa'she-um) 67 



412 



IKDEX. 



PAGE 

Laud, Archbishop 249 

Lauenburg (low' en-burg) 340 

Law, John 802,366 

Lee, General 387, 338, 3S9 

Legnano (len-yah'no), Battle of 216 

Leicester (les'ter), Earl of 169 

Leipsic (lipe'sik) 315, 327, 3-29 

Len'thall 250 

Leo, Bishop of Rome 126 

Leo ELL, Pope 145 

Leo X., Pope 235, 290 

Le-on'i-das 40 

Le'o-pold 1 327, 337 

Leopold H 337 

Le-os'the-nes 56 

Le-pan'to 351 

Lep'i-dus 99 

Les'bos 44 

Leuctra (look'trah) 48 

Lew-el'lyn 170 

Lew'es, Battle of 169 

Lex'ing-ton 272, 370 

Lib'ya 86 

Li-cin'i-an Law 87 

Lima (le'mah) . .: 367 

Lincoln, Abraham 383, &35, 390 

Lincoln, General 373, 374 

Lis'bon 227, 313 

Lith-u-a'ni-a 333 

Little Harbor 361 

Liv'y 105 

Loch Lev'en Castle 243 

Locke, John 262 

Lo'cris 59 

Loire (Iwahr) 143 

Lol'lards («) 178 

Lombard League 220 

Lombards 134, 144 

Lom'bar-dy 345 

Lon'don 216,259,261 

Lon-gi'nus 120 

Long Island 363 

Lo-ren'zo de 1 Medici (med'e-che) 290 

Lor-raine' 202 

Lothaire {lo-thare r ) 146 

Lothaire of Saxony 215, 220 

Lou'is le Deb-on-naire' 145 

Louis I. of Portugal 349 

Louis V. of France (Le Faineant)... 147 

Louis VI. of France 189 

Louis VII. of France.. . 163, 165, 190, 208 

Louis VTJJ. of France 191, 192 

Louis LK. of France (St. Louis) 192, 

209, 210 

Louis X. of France 195 

Louis XI. of France 201, 285 

Louis Xn. of France 286 

Louis XIII. of France 296 

Louis XIV. of France, 259, 264, 265, 29S, 

366 

Louis XV. of France 302 

Louis XVI. of France 272, 303 

Louis XVn. of France 316 

Louis XVIH. of France 316, 317 

Louis, Count of Flanders 199 

Louis of Bavaria 218 

Louis Phil'ippe (or loo'e fe-leep') 318 

Louis, Prince of Conde 292 

Louisburg (loc/is-burg) — 269 



PAGE 

Louisiana (loo'is-e-ah'nah), 302, 366, 376, 

378, 385 

Lou-vaine' 191 

Louvois {loo-vwah') 299 

Lu'bec 216, 314 

Lu'can 107 

Luck'now 279 

Lu-cul'lus 92 

Lundy's Lane 377 

Lune'ville 311 

Lu-te'tia {-she-ah) 143 

Lu'ther, Martin... 235,237,289,325,342 

Lutzen (loot'zen) 297, 315, 327 

Ly-cur'gus 36, 63 

Lyd'i-a 16,17,18,19 

Lyons 115 

Ly-san'der 45 

Ly-sim'a-chus * 58, 84 

OT. 

Ma-caulay 280, 281 

Mac-ca-be'us, Judas 93 

McClel'lan, General 385, 386, 387 

Macedon (mas'e-don) 58, 139 

Macedonia 33, 49, 58, 59, 60, 84 

Macedonian Empire 49, 84 

Ma-cri'nus 114 

Madison 376 

Ma-gel'lan 367 

Ma-gen'ta 321, 345 

Magi (ma-ji) 33 

Mag'na Charta (kar'tah) 168 

Magna Graecia 61 

Mag-nen'tius {-she-us) 122 

Mag-ne'sia 83 

Ma'ho-met 149 

Maine 191,192, 361 

Maintenon (main'te-nong), Madame de, 

301 

Mal'a-koff 279 

Malcolm (mal'kurri) 161 

Malplaquet {jnal-plah'ka) 266, 328 

Malsherbes Imal-zarV) 303 

Malta (maul'tah) 350 

Mam'e-lukes 209, 309 

Mam'er-tines 78 

Ma-nas'sas 385 

Ma-nas'seh 15 

Ma-ne'tho 19 

Man'fred 224 

Man-hat/tan Island 363 

Mans'feld t 326 

Man-ti-ne'a 49 

Man'u-el 205 

Manuel Com-ne'nus 208 

Manuel the Great 348 

Mar-a-can'da 54 

Maracaybo {mah-rah-ki'bo) 368 

Marat (mah-rah 1 ) 30S 

Mar'a-thon 39, 42 

Mar-eel' 197 

Mar-ceFlus 81 

Marco Bozzaris (see Bozzaris). 

Marco Po'lo 222 

Marcus Manlius 72, 74 

Mar-do'ni-us 39, 40, 41 

Ma-ren'go 310 

Margaret of Anjou {ahn'joo), 180, 181, 182 
Margaret of Denmark 337 



IKDEX. 



413 



PAGE 

Marie Antoinette (mah-re' an-twah- 

net>) 304 

Maria da Gloria {mah-re' ah) 349 

Maria Louisa 313, 321 

Maria of Portugal 348 

Maria Theresa 269, 328 

Marignano (mah-reen-yah' no) 2S8 

Marigny (mah-reen'ye) 195 

Mar'i-on, General 374 

Ma'ri-us, Cains 88, 89, 90, 96 

Marl' bor-ough, Duke of . . . 265, 266. 268 

Marston Moor 252 

Mar-tel', Charles 144, 149, 152 

Martyr, Justin 113 

Mary de' Medici (med'e-che) 297, 298 

Mary of Burgundy 202, 219, 336 

Mary, Queen of England.... 238, 239, 291 
Mary, wife of William in. . . 263, 264, 265 

Mary, Queen of Scots 242, 243, 244 

Maryland 363,387 

Mas-i-nis'sa 85 

Mason, John 362 

Massachusetts 249, 272, 361, 362 

Massagetce (mas-saj'e-te) 31 

Mas-sa'li-a 61 

Mat-a-mo'ras 381 

Matilda 162 

Mau-mee / 375 

Maurice, Elector of Saxony 291, 326 

Mau-ri-ta'ni-a 96 

Mav-ro-cor-da'to 352 

Max-en' tiu s (she-us) 121, 122 

Max-i-mil'i-an, Emperor of Germany, 202, 

219, 220, 235, 285, 288, 325, 336 

Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. . . 392 

Max-im'i-an 120, 121 

Max'i-min 116 

Max'i-mus 117 

Maximus, Pe-tro'ni-us 126 

Mayenne (rna-en/)^ Duke of ' 295 

Maz'a-rin 298, 299 

Mecsenas (me-se'nas) 105 

Mec'ca 149 

Mech'lin 336 

Medes 16, 18, 29, 33 

Me'di-a 16, 17, 31 

Me-di'na 149 

Mee'rut 279 

Mehemet Ali (ma' he-met ah'le) 352 

Me-lanc'thon 326, 343 

Mem'phis 19, 20, 22 

Men'a-hem 15 

Menes (me'nez) 19, 28 

Men'schi-koff 342 

Mer'cia (she-ah) 148 

Mer'o-e 24 

Mer-o-vin'gians 143, 144 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, 13, 14, 111, 117,118, 121 

Mes-sa-li'na 107 

Mes-sa'na 61, 78 

Mes-se'ne 60 

Mes-se'ni-a 34 

Mes-se'ni-ans 

Me-teHus 88 

Me-tau'rus 82 

HVtetz 291 

Mexico7.7.7.7.7.7.7.7732^ 3607380, 391 

Mexico, Gulf of 392,393 

Michigan Territory 376, 377 



PAST 1 

Mi-cip'sa 88 

Mi-cis'las 214 

Mil'an 119, 214, 286, 288 

Mi-le'tus 39, 61 

Milford Haven 184 

Mil-ti'a-des 40, 43 

Milton, John 262 

Min'den 303 

Miraheau (me-rah-bo') 305 

Miramon {me'rah-mon) 392 

Mississippi 378, 385 

Mississippi River 302, 360, 366, 376 

Mis-so-lon'ghi 277, 353 

Missouri 378, 379, 386 

Mith-ri-da'tes 89, 92, 96 

Moawiyah (mo-ah-we'yah) 151 

Moesia (me' she-ah) 117, 119, 120 

Mo-ham'med , 149 

Mohammed n 139, 349 

MohawkEiver 373 

Mol-da'vi-a 278 

Monck'ton, Colonel 270 

Mongols , 314 

Monitor (Earn) 386 

Monk, General 254, 257, 259 

Monmouth, Battle of 373 

Monmouth, Duke of 261, 262 

Monroe, Fortress 389 

Monroe, James 378 

Montcalm (mont-kam'), Marquis of. . 270 

Monterey (mon-ta-ra'j 381 

Montgomery 385 

Montgomery, General 371 

Montmorency, Constable 291 

Moore, Sir John 274 

Moors 346 

More, Sir Thomas 236 

Mo-re'a 33, 222, 351 

Moreau (mo-ro'), General. . . 310, 311, 315 

Mor'gar-ten 219 

Mor'ti-mer 173 

Mortimer, Edmund 178, 196 

Moscow 314, 341 

Moses 28, 29 

Mosquito Kingdom 393 

Moultrie (mole'tre), Colonel 371 

Moultrie, Fort 371, 379 

Mum'mi-us 61 

Mun'da 97, 98 

Murat (mu-rah') 310 

Mur-frees-bor'o, Battle of 387 

Musa 151 

Myc'a-le 42 

N. 

Na-bo-nas'sar 13 

Nan'cy 202 

Na'pi-er, Sir Charles 278 

Naples.... 214, 223, 224, 285, 286, 311, 345 

Narses (nar'sez) 132, 133, 134 

Nar' va 341 

Naseby (naze'be) 252 

Navarino (nah-vah-re'no) 276 

Navarre (na-var') 187 

Navarrete (nah-var-ra'ta) 198, 225 

Ne-ar'chus 55 

Ne-bras'ka 383, 390 

Neb-u-chad-nez'zar 14, 21, 25, 28, 29 

Neck'er... 304,305 



414 



INDEX, 



PAGE 

Ne-ka'o or Ne'chos II 21 

Nelson 273, 310, 340 

Ne-me'a 63 

Ne-me'an Games 63 

Nena Sahib (sah'eeb) £79 

Nep'tune 63 

Ne'ro 107, 109, 110 

Ner'va Ill, 114 

Neth'er-lands 219, 241, 266, 291, 335 

Neu'stri-a 143 

Nev'ille's Cross 174 

New Amsterdam 363 

New Brunswick 365 

Newburg 251 

Newcastle 249 

New England 246, 249 

New France 366 

New Hampshire 361 

New Jersey v 363, 371 

New Mexico 381, 382 

New Netherlands 258, 362, 363 

New Orleans 378, 386 

New Sweden 364 

New York 362, 363, 371, 372, 375 

Ney (no), Marshal 315, 316, 318 

Nicaragua {nik-ar-aw' guah) 393 

Ni'ce 122, 137,- 138, 206, 207 

NicholasI 342 

Nicholas II 352 

Nicias (nish'e-as) 45, 78 

Ni-cop'o-lis 218 

Niemen {ne'men) , 314 

Nile 22, 24, 273 

Nim'rod 12 

Nin'e-veh 14, 16, 20, 29 

Nis'sa 218 

Na'ah 11 

Nor'folk 386 

No'ri-cum 104, 134 

Normandy 146, 160, 161, 223 

Normans '. . . 142, 146, 154, 160 

North America 147, 359 

North Carolina. . . . 360, 365, 375, 386, 389 

Northampton 181 

Northern Italy 220 

Northmen 146 

Norway 337 

Nova Scotia 270, 365 

Nov'go-rod 216, 340 

Nu'bi-a 20 

Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us 67 

Nu-man'tia {-she-ah) 86 

Nu-mid'i-a 85, 88, 97 

O. 

Oates (ots), Titus 261 

Cc-ta'vi-a 100 

Oc-ta'vi-us 99, 100 

O'Connell, Daniel 277 

O-den-a'tus 119, 120 

Od-o-a'cer 127, 132 

O'Donnell 318 

O'sle-thorpe, General 268 

Ohio 376 

Ohio River 375 

Ojeda {o-ha'dah) 36S 

Oliver Clisson (see Clissori). 

O-lym'pi-a 35, 63 

O-lym 'pi-ad, First 63 



PAGB 

O-lym'pi-as 57 

O-lym'pic Games 63 

O-l yn' thus 50 

O'rnar 150 

Orange, Fort 363 

Orellana (p-rel-yah'naK) 367 

O-res'tes 12(5 

O-ri-no'co River 359 

O-ri'on 12 

Ork'ney Islands 242 

Or'leans 200 

O-ron'tes 58, 208 

Os'car 339 

Os-ce-o'la 379 

Os'ti-a 116 

Os'tro-goths 132 

Oth'man 139, 150 

O'tlio, Emperor of Rome 108 

Otho I., the Great 213, 220, 221 

Otho H 214, 223 

Otho III 214 

Otho, Prince of Bavaria 277 

Otho, King of Greece 353 

O-tran'to 133 

Ot'ter-burn 178 

Ot'to-car 217 

Ot'to-man Empire 350 

Ot'to-mans 139, 218 

Ot'way 262 

Ou'de-narde 266, 328 

Oudinot (oo' de-no) 320 

O v'id 105 

Ox'en-stiern (stern) 338 

Ox'ford 157 

JP. 

Pacific Ocean 367 

Pac-to'lus 17 

Pakenham (pak'n-am) 378 

Pa-ler'mo 345 

Pal'es-tine. ... 15, 25, 26, 137, 205, 207, 209 

Pal-my'ra 27, 119, 120 

Pal-ce-ol'o-gus 138, 139 

Panama (pan-ah-mah') 367 

Pan-no'ni-a 113, 114, 119, 134, 145 

Pa-o'li 303 

Paris, 143, 146, 191, 196, 197, 198, 199, 293, 
295,303, 317 

Paris, Treaty of 271, 303, 352, 366 

Parr, Catharine 237 

Par'thi-a Ill 

Paul the Apostle 107 

Paul, Emperor of Russia 342 

Pau-sa'ni-as 41, 42, 43, 51 

Pa'vi-a 134, 144, 213, 2S9, 290 

Pe'kin 280 

Pe-las'gi-ans or Pe-las-gl 34 

Pe-la'yo 225 

Pelissier (pa-lis-se-a r ) 321 

Pe-lop'i-das 4S 

Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, 33, 34, 35, 36, 48, 49, 56 

Pe-lu'si-um (-zJie-um) 21, 29 

Penn, Admiral 256 

Penn, William 363, 364, 365 

Pennsylvania 364, 371 , 3S7 

Pen-ea"-co'la 377, 378, 3S5 

Pep'in d'Her-is-tal' 144 

Pepin the Short 144 

Percy, Harry 178 



LXDEX. 



415 



PAGE 

Per-dic'cas , , 55, 56, 57 

Per'ga-mus 83,84,87 

Per-i-an'der , 38 

Per'i-cles (-fflz) 43, 44 

Perry, Commodore 377 

Per-sep'o-lis 54, 55 

Per'seus (suse) 61 

Persia, 31, 46, 51, 116, 134, 136, 138, 150, 350 

Persian Gulf 13,222 

Persians 14, 17 

Per'ti-nax 114 

Pe-ru' 367,368 

Peter of Aragon 193 

Peter the Cruel 225 

Peter the Great 338, 341, 351 

Peter the Hermit 189, 206, 207 

Petersburg 388 

Petersburg, St 341 

Pe'trarch 225 

Pha-le're-us, Demetrius 57 

Phar-na'ces (sez) 96 

Phar-sa'li-a 98 

Phil-a-del'phia 364, 370, 372, 373, 375 

Philip of Burgundy 198 

Philip, Emperor of Pome 117 

Philip I. of France 167, 168, 189 

Philip II. of France (Augustus), 190, 191, 

192, 208 

Philip in. of France... 193, 210 

Philip IV. of France 172, 193 

Philip V. of France 195 

Philip VI. of France 174, 175, 196 

Philip of Macedon 49, 50, 51 

Philip II. of Macedon 60, 83, 84 

Philip II. of Spain, 239, 241, 291, 292, 294, 
336, 346, 348 

Philip m. of Spain 346 

Philip V. of Spain 301 

Philip Van Artevelde {ar'te-velaZ) — 199 

Phi-lip'pa 174 

Philippe, Louis (see Louis Philippe). 

Phi-lip'pi 50, 99 

Philippine {fll-ip-peen r ) Islands 367 

Phil-ip-pop'o-lis 117 

Phil-is'tines 26 

Phil-o-poe'men 60 

Phocion (fo'she-on) 56 

Phocis ifo'sis) 34, 59 

Phoebus {fe'bus), Statue of 150 

Phoenicia {fe-nish' e-ah) 24, 53 

Phra-or'tes {-Uz) 17 

Pick'ens, Fort 385 

Pickens, General 374 

Pierce, Franklin 382 

Pi-le'ser, Tig'lath 15 

Pi-sis'tra-tus 37 

Pitt, William (elder) 271 

Pitt, William (younger) 273 

Pius VII., Pope 313 

Pius IX., Pope 320 

Pizarro (pe-zar'ro) 367 

Pla-cid'i-a 125 

Plains of Abraham 270 

Plan-tag'e-net (-taj-), Geoffrey 1 69 

Pla-tse'a 41,42,44 

Pla'to 46 

Plymouth (plim'uth) 246, 361 

Plin'y 109 

Plutarch. Ill 



PAGE 

Po Eiver 108 

Poitiers (poi-terz), 175, 197, 198, 199, 200 

Poi-tou {pwah-too') 190, 191 

Poland 134, 333, 342, 343, 351 

Pole, Cardinal , 239 

Polk, James K 380, 381, 3S2 

Po'lo, Marco 222 

Poltava (pol-tah'vah) 338, 342, 351 

Pol'y-carp 113 

Pol-y-sper'chon 57 

Pompeii (pom-pe'yi) 110 

Pom'pey the Great, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 

Po'ni-a-tow'ski 334 

Pon'tus 84, 89, 92, 96, 97 

Pope, the distinguished poet 267 

Pope, General 386, 387 

Port Hudson 387 

Port Eoyal, Acadia 360 

Port Royal, South Carolina 365, 366 

Porter, Admiral 386 

Porto Bello 268 

Ports'mouth 248, 361 

Por'tu-gal. 227, 313, 348, 366 

Po'rus 54 

Po-tem'kin 342 

Po-to'mac River 387 

Prae-to'ri-an_ Guards 104 

Prague (prag) 218 

Pres'burg 311 

Pride, Colonel 252 

Prince of Wales, origin of the title . . 170 

Pring, Martin 361 

Pro-pon'tis 62 

Protestants 325, 327 

Provence {pro-vahns') 1S7 

Providence 362 

Pru'sa 139 

Prussia, 307, 311, 312, 316, 331, 334 

Pruth {proof) River 342 

Psam-men'i-tus 21 

Psam-met'i-chus 1 21, 24 

Ptolemy {tol'e-me) 13, 57, 58, 93 

Ptolemy, Ce-rau'nus {se-) 59 

Pub'li-us Scipio {sip'e-o) 81 

Puebla {pweb'lah) 392 

Pul 15 

Pu-las'ki, Count 373 

Pulaski, Fort 386 

Pul-cke'ri-a {-Ice-) 132 

Pun'jab 278 

Pu'ri-tans 240, 246, 249, 250, 361 

Pydna {pid'nah) 61, 84 

Pyr-en-ees' 80, 143, 191 

Pyrrhus {pir'rus) 58, 76, 77 

a. 

Quebec 270,366,371 

Queen Anne's War 365 

Quesne {Jcane), Fort du 270 

Quin-til'i-an 109 

It 
Raleigh {raio'le), Sir Walter, 241, 245, 360 

Ra-me'ses 1 20 

RamesesII 20, 29 

Ramillies {ram' e-leez) 266 

Ravaillac {rak-val-yak') 296 

Ra-ven'na 124, 133, 214, 221 

Raymond VI., Count of Languedoc, 191- 



416 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Raymond, Count of Toulouse 207 

Red Sea 22,27 

He-dan' 279 

Re-gil'lus 68 

Reg 'u-lus 79 

Re-ho-bo'am 27 

Re'mus 67 

Rheims (reemz) 200 

Rhine River 94, 143 

Rhodes 140,350 

Rhode Island 362, 375 

Rialto (re-awl'to) 221 

Richard I. of England 166, 191, 208 

Richard II. of England 176, 177, 178 

Richard ILL of England 183 

Richard, Duke of York 180, 181 

Richelieu (resh'e-lu), 248, 297, 298, 326, 327 

Richmond 386,388 

Rid'ley 238,239 

Rienzi (re-en' ze) 225 

Rio de la Plata (re'o da lah plah'tah, 368 

Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da) 381, 382 

Rivers, Lord 183 

Rizzio (reet'se-o) 242 

Roanoke Island 361, 386 

Robert, Count of Flanders 207 

Robert, King of France 187, 189 

Robert Guiscard (ghees-kar 1 ) 223 

Robespierre (ro-bes-pe-are'), 307, 308, 309 

Rochelle (ro-shei') 293, 297 

Rod'er-ick 151 

Roger 1 224 

Roger D 224 

Roger Williams 362 

Ro'land 145 

Rol'lo 146, 160 

Roman Empire 320 

Rome. . . 67, 107, 110, 124, 126, 215, 224, 289 

Rom'u-lus 67 

Roncesvalles (ron-ses-val'les) 145 

Rosebecque (rose'bek) 199 

Rose'crans, General 387 

Ross, General 377 

Rouen 199, 201 

Roum (room) 137, 138 

Roxana (rox-ah'nah) 54, 56 

Ru'bi-con 95 

Rudolf 1 217 

Rudolf of Suabia 215 

Run-ny-mede' < 168 

Ru'pert, Prince 251, 252, 259, 260 

Russell, Admiral 265 

Russell, Lord John 277 

Russell, Lord William 261 

Russia 340, 351, 352, 353 

Rye-House Plot 261 

Rys'wick 265,301 

S. 

Sab'a-cus 24,29 

Sacred War (Greece) 50, 51 

Sad'o-wa 330 

Sa-gun'tum 80 

St. Albans (awl'bans) 181 

St. Au-gus-tine' (.-teen) 148 

St. Augustine, City of 360 

St. Ber'nard of Clairvaux (clare-vo') . . 208 

St. He-le'na 317 

St. John, Knights of 350 



PAGB 

St. John's River 360 

St. Lawrence, River and Gulf. . 360, 365 

St. Louis 192 

St. Mark 221 

St. Marks 378 

St. Mary's 364 

St. Patrick 165 

St. Peter 224 

St. Petersburg'. 335, 341 

St. Quen'tin, Battle of 291 

Sal'a-din 153, 166, 208 

Sal-a-man'ca 274 

Sal'a-mis 40, 43 

Sa'lem 361 

Sa-ler'no 215,223, 224 

Sal'ic Law 174, 195, 196, 347 

Sa-lo'na 121 

Sam'ar-cand 54 

Sa-ma'ri-a 15, 28 

Sam'nite War 75 

Sam'nites 75 

Samuel 26 

San'croft 263 

San Sal-va-dor' 359, 393 

San'ta An'na 381, 382, 392 

Sa'por 117, 118 

Saracen Empire 152, 153 

Saracens 135,144,149,225 

Sar'a-cus 16 

Sar-a-to'ga 272, 373 

Sar-dan-a-pa'lus 16 

Sar-din'i-a, Kingdom of 321, 344 

Sar'dis 18, 32, 45, 58 

Sar'gon 15 

Sas-san'i-des 116,135 

Saul 26, 29 

Sa-van'nah 365, 373, 386, 388, 3S9 

Sa-voy' 344, 345 

Saxe Co'burg, Go'tha 278 

Saxe (sax), Marshal 269 

Saxon Hep'tar-chy 148 

Saxons 142,147,148, 213 

Say'brook 362 

Scan-di-na'via 117 

Schwartzenberg (shwartz' en-berg) , 

Prince, 316 

Schweitz (shwites) 219 

Scinde (sind) 278 

Scipio (sip'e-o), Roman Consul 80 

Scipio, Lucius (Asiaticus) 83 

Scipio, Pub'li-us Cor-ne'li-us (Af-ri- 

ca'nus), 81, 82, 83 

Scotland 171, 172, 173, 235, 242, 267 

Scots 112, 115, 147 

Scott, General 377, 3S2, 385 

Scott, Sir Walter 276 

Se-bas'tian HI. of Portugal. . , 348 

Sebastian Cab'ot 234, 359, 368 

Se-bas'to-pol 279, 321 

Sedge Moor, Battle of. 262 

Seine (sane) River 146 

Se-ja'nus 106 

Se-leu'cia (-she-ah) Ill, 115, 152 

Se-leu'cus 58, 84 

Se'lim 1 350 

Selim H 350 

Seljuk (sel'yook) Turks 137, 205 

Sem'i-noles 378, 379 

Sem'pach, Battle of 219 



INDEX. 



417 



PAGE 

Sem-pro'ni-us 80 

Sen-nach'e-rib 15, 21, 28 

Sen'e-ca 107 

Sen-ti'num 75 

Sep-tim'i-us Se-ve'rus 114 

Serfdom in England 176, 177 

Ser-to'ri-us 91 

Ser'vi-a 139 

Ser'vi-us Tulli-us 68, 70 

Servile War .... 91 

Se-sos'tris 20 

Seven Years' War 329, 332 

Se-ve'rus, Alexander 116 

Severus, Septimius 114 

Seymour, Jane 237, 328 

Shakes'peare 244 

Shal-man-e'ser 15, 25 

She'chem 27 

Shelly 276 

Sheni 11 

Shen-an-do'ah Valley 388 

Sher'i-dan 273 

Sheridan, General 388 

Sherman, General 388 

She'shonk 20 

Shi'ites 150 

Shi'nar 12 

Ship Money 248 

Shi'shak 20, 29 

Shrewsbury, Battle of 178 

Si-be'ri-a 341 

Sicilian Vespers, Massacre of w . . 193, 224 
Sicily, 61, 76, 77, 78, 79, 132, 193, 223, 224, 

344, 345 

Sicyon (sish'e-on) 38 

Sidney, Al'ger-non 261 

Sidney, Sir Philip 244 

Si'don 52 

Sigismund (sifis-mund) of Hungary, 218 

Sigismund I. of Poland 333 

Sigismund II. of Poland 333 

Sikhs 278 

Sim'nel, Lambert 233 

Simon de Mont'fort 169, 170 

Sin'o-pe 62 

Si-wah' 31 

Six Weeks' War 330 

Slaves 214 

Sla-vo'ni-ans 133,214 

Sles'wick 339, 340 

Slote, Commodore 381 

Smal'cal-de, League of 326 

Smer'dis 31,32 

Smolensk 314, 333 

Smyr'na 113 

So-bi-es'ki, John 328, 334, 351 

Social War (Greece) 50 

Social War (Italy) 89 

Soc'ra-tes (-teez) 45, 46 

Sog-di-a'na 54 

Solferino {sol-fa-re' no) 321, 345 

Soil-man, Sultan of Rouin 137, 207 

Soliman the Magnificent 289, 350 

Sol'o-nion 27, 29 

Solon 37 

Somerset, Earl of 246 

Sophia, grand-daughter of James L. 267 

Soulouque (soo-look') 395 

South America 359, 366, 368, 369 



PAGE 

South Carolina, 365, 371, 374, 375, 385, 386 

South Sea Scheme 267 

Spain, 77, 80, 81, 82, 86, 91, 104, 125, 145, 

151, 152, 225, 256, 265, 268, 274, 313, 346, 

366, 367, 368, 378 

Spanish Netherlands 336 

Spanish Succession, War of 265, 301 

Spanish War 86 

Spar'ta. ... 36, 37, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 60 

Spar'ta-cus 91, 92 

Spenser 244 

Sphac-te'ri-a 44 

Spire 325 

Spu'ri-us Cassius 70 

Spurs, Battle of 235, 287 

Stafford, Earl of 261 

Stanls-las, Augustus 334, 335, 338 

Stanislas of Poland 302 

States General of France... 195, 285, 292, 

297, 304 

Steele 267 

Stephen, King of England 162, 163 

Still-cho (-M) 124 

Stirling 171 

Stock'ton, Commodore 381 

Strafford, Earl of 248, 249 

St-ral'sund 326 

Stras'burg 300,320 

Stu'art, Arabella 245 

Stuart Family 245 

Stuyyesant (sti've-sant), Peter. . . 363, 364 

Suabians (swa'be-ans) 213 

Su'ez 21 

Sul'ly, Duke of 247, 296, 297 

Sum'ter, Fort 385, 389 

Sumter, General 374 

Sun'nah 151 

Sun'nites 150 

Supremacy, Act of 240 

Su-rat' 247 

Surrey, Earl of 237 

Susa {soo'sah) 32,54, 55 

Sus'sex 148 

Su-war'row, Marshal 310, 335, 351 

Sweden, 260, 311, 312,|314, 327, 331, 334, 337 

Sweyn (swane) 158, 159 

Swift 267 

Switzerland 217, 219, 327, 335, 343 

Syb'a-ris 61 

Sylla {sil'lah) 89, 90, 91, 92, 96 

Syr'a-cuse 45, 79, 81 

Syr'i-a. ... 15, 25, 84, 92, 94, 117, 118, 137, 
138, 150, 205, 310, 351 

T. 

Ta'bor, Mount 310 

Tacitus (tas'e-tus), Emperor 120 

Tacitus, the historian 110 

Tad'mor 27 

Tal-a-ve'ra 274 

Tam'er-lane 139 

Tan'a-is, Eiver 134 

Tan'cred 207 

Tara (tah'rah) 165 

Ta-ren'tum 61, 76, 77, 207, 214, 223 

Ta'rik 151 

Tar'quin the Elder 68 

Tarquin the Proud 68 

Tar-quinl-i (-e-l) 75 



418 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Tar'ta-ry 137, 222 

Tau'rus Mountains 84 

Taylor, General 379, 380, 381, 382 

Te-cum'seh 376 

Tell, William 217 

Ten-nes-see' 375 

Tennessee Kiver 386, 388 

Ten'ny-son 281 

Test Act . 260 

Teu-ton'ic Order of Knights'. ....... 331 

Tewks'bu-ry 182 

Tex'as 380, 381, 3S2, 385 

Thack'e-ray 281 

Thames (temz), Battle of 377 

Thames River 259 

Thap'sus 96, 98 

Theb'a-is 22 

Thebes (theebz) in Egypt 22 

Thebes in Greece. , 48, 49, 51 

The-mis'to-cles (-Uez) 41, 42 

The'o-dore. King of Abyssinia 280 

The-od'o-ric 132 

The-o-do'si-us {-she-us) the Great, 123, 124 

Theodosius II 131, 132 

The-re'sa, Maria 269, 270, 304 

Ther-niop'y-lae 40, 62 

Theseus (the'suse) 34 

Thes'sa-ly 33, 35, 50, 56, 60 

Thomas, General 388 

Thot'mes II 29 

Thotmes III 20 

Thotmes IV 20 

Thrace 32, 34, 44, 59, 117, 122, 139 

Thras-y-bu / lus 46 

Thu-cyd'i-des (sid-) 45 

Ti'ber 116 

Ti-be'ri-us 104, 105, 106, 108 

Tiberius of France — 201 

Tiberius Gracchus 86, 87 

Ticinus {te-si'nus) 80 

Ti-con-de-ro'ga 373 

Tig'lath Pi-le'ser 15 

Tigranes (te-grah'nez) 92 

Ti'gris Eiver 14, 121, 131, 150, 351 

Til'ly 326,327 

Til'sit 312 

Ti-mo'le-on 78 

Ti'mour 139 

Tip-pe-ca-noe' (-noo) 376 

Tir-ha'kah 21 

Tis-sa-pher'nes (-nez) 45 

Ti'tus 109, 110 

Titus, Colonel 256 

To-lo'sa 225 

Tor'bay 263 

Tos'ti 0- . • . . 159 

Toti\& n (ioi'e-iahj '. * .' .'." ." .' .' .' .' .' .' .... '. '. '. '. 133 

Tou-lon' 309 

Tou-louse' (-loos) 191, 192, 207 

Tou-raine' 195 

Tours (toor) 144 

Tou'ton, Battle of 182 

Traf-al-gar' 274 

Tra'jan Ill 

Tras-i-me'nus 80 

Tre'bi-a 80 

Tren'ton 371 

Triple Alliance 260 

Tri-um'vir-ate 94, 99 



PAGE 

Troyes (trwah) 179, 199, 200 

Tu'dor, Edmund 232 

Tudor, Henry 183, 184 

Tuilleries (tweel're) 307, 318 

Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us 67 

Tu'nis 193, 210 

Turgot (toor-goO 303 

Turenne (tu-reri), Marshal 298,300 

Tu'rin 2(56 

Turkey. . . . 279, 325, 338, 342, 349, 351, 352 

Tur-kis-tan / 343 

Turks, Ottoman 137, 352 

Turks, Seljuk 137 

Tus'ca-ny 67 

Tus'cu-lum 68 

Ty'burn 234 

Ty'ler, John 380 

Tyler, Wat 176, 177 

Tyn'dale, William... 238 

Tyne (tine) 249 

Tyre (tire) 25,27,29,53 

TJ. 

Ulm 311 

Um'bri-a 75,82 

Union of England and Scotland 267 

United States 275, 366, 369 

Unterwalden (oon'ter-wal-deri) 219 

Ur 13 

Whan H., Pope 206 

Uri (oo're) 219 

Uruguay (o&roo-gwi) 368 

U'ti-ca 25, 82, 85, 96 

U'trecht, Treaty of 266, 301, 366 

V. 

Va'lens 123 

Val-en-tin'i-an 1 123 

Valentinian II 123 

Valentinian III 125, 126, 147 

Val-div'i-a 368 

Va-le'ri-an 117, 118, 119 

Van Ar'te-velde, Philip „ 199 

Van Bu'ren, Martin 380 

Vane, Sir Henry 251 

Van Tromp, Admiral 255 

Var'ro 80 

Va'rus 105 

Vas'co da Gama (gah'mah) 348 

Vauban (vo-bahng') 300 

Veii (ve'yl) 72 

Ven'a-bles, Admiral 256 

Ven'e-ti 126, 220 

Ven-e'tia (she-ah) 345 

Ve-ne'tians (she-am) 351 

Ven'ice. . . 214, 220, 235, 286, 287, 309, 350 

Venezuela (ven-e-zwa'lah) 368 

Vera Cruz * 382 

Vergniaud (vdrn'yo) 308 

Vermont 375 

Vernon, Admiral 268 

Vernon, Mount 375 

Ve-ro'na 124, 214 

Verrazzani (ver-rat-tsah'ne) 360 

Ver-sailles' 304 

Ve'rus Lucius 113 

Ves-pa'si-an (she-an) 109, 110 

Vespucci, Amerigo (ves-poot'che % ah- 

ma-re' go, 359, 368 



ISTDFX. 



419 



PAGE 

Ve-su'vi-us 91, 110 

Vicks'burg 387 

Victor Emanuel 345 

Victoria, Queen 277 

Vienna {ve-erinah\ 113, 316, 328, 3-29, 334, 

340, 350, 351 

Villa Franca 321 

Villiers (vil'yerz), George 206 

Vimeira {ve-ma' e-rah) 274 

Vin-do-bo'nf 113 

Vin-de-li'cia {-lish'e-ah) 104 

Virgil 105 

Vir-gin'i-a . . 241, 360, 361, 365, 370, 386 

Vir-i-a'tus 86 

Vi-tel'li-us 108, 109 

Vit-to'ri-a 274 

Vol'e-ro, Law of 70 

Vol'ga 350 

Vol'sci-ans {-she-ans). . *, 71 

Vol-taire' 305, 332 

W. 

Wa'gram 313, 314, 330 

WaKe'field, Battle of 181 

Wales 147, 162, 170 

Wallace, William 171 

Wal-la'chi-a (-ke-ah) 278 

Wal'len-stein (stme) 326, 327 

Wal'pole, SirKobert 268 

Wal'sing-ham, Sir Francis 240 

Wal'terthe Pennyless 206 

Wal'wortb 177 

War'beck, Perkin 233, 234 

War'saw 335 

Warwick (tvar'rik), Earl of, 180, 181, 182 
Washington City, 375, 377, 385, 386, 3S7 
Washington, George, 272,370, 371, 372, 

373 375 

Waterloo, Battle of 275,' 317 

Wayne, General 375 

Wel'les-ly, Sir Arthur, » 274, 275, 313, 316, 
Wel'ling-ton, Duke of, f 317 

Went'worth, Sir Thomas 247, 248 

We'ser 45 

Wes'sex 148 

West Indies 359, 393 

WestLo'cris 34 

West-pha'li-a 298 

WicMiffe, John 176,178 



PAGE 

William, Duke of Normandy 160 

William I. of England (the Conqueror), 

160, 189 
William II. of England (Rufus), 161, 189 
William in. of England, 263, 264, 265, 

300, 336 

William TV. of England 277 

William III. of Holland 337 

William the Silent 336 

William and Mary 264 

Williams, Eoger 362 

Wind'ham 273 

Wind'sor 362 

Win'kel-ried {-reed), Arnold of 219 

Wolfe, General 270, 366 

Wolsey, Thomas (Cardinal).. 234, 235, 

236. 288 
Worcester (woos'ter), Battle of.. 254, 256 

Words'worth 276 

Wur'tem-berg 330 

Wy'att, Sir Thomas 238 

Wycherly {witch' er-le) 262 

X. 

Xan-thip'pus 79 

Xen'o-phon 16, 45, 46, 47 

Xerxes I. {zerx'ees) 32, 40, 42, 54 

Ximenes {he-ma'nez) 346 

•Y. 

York, City of 115, 121, 180, 252 

York, Duke of (James).. 259, 260, 261, 363 

York River 386 

Young 276 

Z. 

Zach'a-ry, Pope 144 

Zama {za'mah) 82 

Zed-e-ki'ah 14, 28 

Ze/la 96 

Ze'no 132 

Ze-no^i-a 119, 120 

Zen'ta 328 

Zim'is-ces {-sez) 136 

Zis'ca, John 218 

Zoll'ver-ein {-me) 333 

Zo-ro-as'ter 33 

Zu'rich 343 

Zwingle 343, 344 



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